hoax
The Einstein Hoax
The Disastrous Intellectual War on Common Sense
By- H. E. Retic
Published by-
The H. E. Retic Co.
West Caldwell, NJ
Initial Copyright- July 1997
Revision Copyright-
December 1997
All Rights Reserved
Limited License-
License is hereby granted for the downloading of this document from
its Internet Website and the reproduction of a single hardcopy, a single backup
disk, and storage on the harddrive of a personal computer for the sole use of
the individual performing the download. Copies are not licensed for distribution
to other parties. The storage of "The Einstein Hoax" is authorized only at the
author's website. No intermediate storage locations for the files of "The
Einstein Hoax" are to be maintained except as required to facilitate its
transmission to legitimate recipients. The rights of individuals to download
these files terminates when the copyright holder deletes them from the Website
on the Internet Service Provider (ISP) host computer. The ISP has no rights to
the copyrighted material, regardless of any conditions it may seek to impose,
since it has neither offered or provided any consideration for such rights.
Equation Considerations-
In order to reliably reproduce equations over the Internet, the author has
elected to employ only symbols that appear on a conventional typewriter
keyboard. It should be noted that-
- The symbol "*" represents a multiplication.
- The symbol "^" represents the raising of a number to a power.
- The author relies upon the "No Break" command of HTML to prevent equations and expressions from being split between lines by the browser's wordwrap function.
Diagram Presentation:-
The presentation of a text containing Tables and/or Figures is compromised by the capability of browsers to allow the user to vary the size of the presentation from an agreed upon standard. As a result, it is necessary to incorporate "page break" commands within the text so that embedded tables and diagrams will not split between two separate printed pades. This will have no effect on texts read directly from the screen but will cause some of the printed pages to contain a blank space at their end to allow the tables and/or diagrams to start at the top of the nect page. Ir is recommended that the printer margins be set at 0.75 inches at the top, right and bottom and at 1.0 inches at the left. Your browser's text size should be initially set at MEDIUM. To test for a suitable printed page size access Print Size Test Page. If printing does not fill page properly, try adjusting the top and bottom margins. To copy text and diagrams to a file "Save As" "Complete HTML Text File".
If it is found that a hardcopy of the material at this website is desired but printing the text on your computer is too tedious, a softcover book which contains the complete texts ("The Einstein Hoax", with "Gravity" and "Corrections of Residual Errors in Special Relativity" as appendices) is available at AuthorHouse.com under the title "The Einstein Hoax".
Chapter Index
Chapter 1 - Introduction
Chapter 2 - Historical Background
Chapter 3 - The Nature of the Einstein Hoax
Chapter 4 - Does the Aether Exist?
Chapter 5 - The Resurrection of Absolute Velocity By Quantum Experiments
Chapter 6 - The Nature of Reality
Chapter 7 - Applying the Lorentz Transformations Properly
Chapter 8 - Generating the Gravity Transformations
Chapter 9 - Dr. Einstein's Error and the Introduction of Curved Space
Chapter 10 - Gravitational Contraction and Collapse
Chapter 11 - Gravitational Collapse and the Creation of a Universe
Chapter 12 - The Space Time Continuum
Chapter 13 - The Nature of Particles
Chapter 14 - Adding the Quantum Effects to Our Understanding
Chapter 15 - Changing the Paradigms
Chapter 16 - What Can We Conclude?
Chapter 1 - Introduction
1.1- As a young man, the author had sufficient arrogance to believe
that, while a lack of time prevented an individual from understanding all of
Nature, there was no aspect of Nature that could not be understood at the
intuitive level by a reasonably intelligent and adequately motivated individual.
As a result the statements which appeared in the texts of the time that the
effects defined by the Special and General Theories of Relativity were beyond
such an understanding and could only be treated by mathematical manipulations
were a challenge. Inherently, mathematics is a science of how much and not of
how come, and it was the how come that the author wished to understand. To meet
that challenge, the author proceeded to study the concepts involved with the
good faith belief that they had been well thought out and well verified by men
far better trained and wiser than himself. However, the deeper the author
probed, the more disillusioned he became. It became more and more apparent that
the effects represented were quite easily understood at the intuitive, or common
sense, level and that the reason that they appeared mysterious was that those
who purported to be experts did not actually understand the subject matter and
that their assertions of its incomprehensibility were rationalizations to cover
their own limitations. It turns out that the subject matter is readily
understood by anyone with a good ability to visualize physical reality and who
is familiar with Physics and Calculus at the college freshman level.
1.2- The author's initial confusion resulted from the fact that, while
Special Relativity was presented as the epitome of physical wisdom, initially it
was impossible for him to find a meaningful distinction between it and the
Lorentz Transformation-Aether Theory which had preceded it by two years. It
finally dawned on the author that the Special Theory of Relativity was actually
the Lorentz Transformation-Aether Theory without the constraint imposed by the
requirement of an absolute velocity reference (the Aether). Then, contrary to
the rules of evidence which would be employed in a court of law, the academic
community forced the acceptance of the idea that, since both theories had
demonstrated that our absolute velocity through space could not be observed, the
Aether had no significance and was not to be used as the basis for a
physical theory. This position was taken even though Dr. Einstein had maintained
a belief in absolute time (equivalent to a belief in the existence of the
Aether) for about 25 years after Special Relativity had been published. He had
also warned that the non-existence of the Aether had not been proven, what had
been proven was that its use was not necessary in mathematical analyses of
physical processes.
1.3- Both Special Relativity and the Lorentz Transformation-Aether
Theory demonstrated that the observed velocity of light was independent of the
velocity of its source. Therein lies the rub. Such a result is obvious if light
is a wave propagating through a medium (the Aether). By abolishing the Aether,
Special Relativity lost the velocity reference the Aether represented and
asserted instead that light propagated as ballistic particles (photons) through
empty space. Advocates of Special Relativity provided no explanation as to how
Nature performed such a remarkable feat of speed control without using the
Aether as a reference and instead, they strongly asserted that any doubts a
questioner had resulted from his limited intellectual capacity rather than from
a legitimate concern. That attitude has run into some trouble in recent years,
observations of the radiation background of space have shown that the Earth has
a velocity of 300 kilometers per second with respect to that background, and
experiments by quantum physicists have demonstrated that our absolute velocity
through space can be measured in the laboratory. As we shall see, these
observations make an overwhelmingly strong argument for the validity of the
Lorentz Transformation-Aether Theory and the artificiality of the Special Theory
of Relativity.
1.4- The author's disillusionment became deeper when he began to study
General Relativity. That theory supposedly explained gravity as a phenomena
resulting from a curving of space caused by the presence of matter. However,
General Relativity blithely fails to discuss the most significant characteristic
of gravity, the force which presses you to your chair. Compared to the need to
explain that force and the energy it represents, the corrections General
Relativity provides to the Newtonian orbits of planets, the path of starlight,
or the rate of passage of time are rather trivial. Incredibly, not only does
General Relativity fail to explain the source of that force (and the energy it
implies), many texts on the subject actually deny that the force exists. When
the derivation of General Relativity is examined carefully, it is found to
contain a fundamental error of a type which would not have been tolerated if it
had been made by a college freshman who was studying Calculus. Even with that
error, the truth of the basic premises of General Relativity (the Principles of
Relativity and of Equivalence) insured the error would not be revealed by
observations made in the weak gravitational field of the Sun or by observations
of a distant binary star system. In order to partially compensate for the
effects of his mathematical error, Dr. Einstein introduced the artificiality of
curved space. This concept has had the unfortunate effect of leading a large
number of highly trained astronomers and cosmologists down the garden path and
led to the absurdities of Black Holes, Wormholes, and Singularities. Dr.
Einstein may have recognized the existence of a defect(s) in General Relativity
since he is reported to have been uneasy about its extension into regions of
intense gravitational fields.
1.5- The author's disillusionment with the job performance of those
from whom he had hoped to learn led him to study the subject matter by starting
from basics using an approach which was suitable for the analysis of
relativistic phenomena (i.e.- velocity effects and gravity effects). This
capability is not possessed by the Tensor Calculus commonly used by physicists
and which allows them to by-pass the need to understand the phenomenon they were
investigating. The author recognized, as does a surveyor who routinely corrects
his observations for the effects of ambient temperature on the length of his
measuring tape, that observations made between reference frames differing in
velocity and/or elevation require a correction for the effects of that
difference on the size of the units of measurement he employs. Only after
appropriate corrections have been made can valid conclusions be drawn as to what
actually occurs between different velocity and/or elevation reference frames.
The required technique for studying relativistic effects is Dimensional Analysis
which was developed in the 19th century to facilitate experiments in hydraulic
engineering. The Lorentz Transformations of both the Lorentz
Transformation-Aether Theory and Special Relativity provide the information
required to allow the use of Dimensional Analysis for a rigorous analysis of the
effects of velocity. To examine the gravitational field, it was necessary for
the author to devise a means of deriving gravitational equivalents of the
Lorentz Transformations that did not include the loop of circular reasoning that
caused General Relativity to be defective.
1.6- The real test of an expert's knowledge is his ability to make his
subject matter intuitively understandable to an intelligent layman. If he cannot
do so, there is only one possible reason. Regardless of his credentials and his
acceptance by his peers, the reason is that he doesn't actually understand his
subject matter. In the remainder of this text, the writer hopes to be able to
pass that test of understandability and provide the reader with a useful insight
into the nature of space, time, matter, gravitation, and cosmology in a manner
which is consistent with the physical laws taught in undergraduate level
physics. The author's tools are his simple minded belief that there is only one
reality and everything we accept as true about that reality must be consistent
with everything else we accept as true and his simple minded belief that Nature
is constructed in the most straightforward manner possible. With that in mind,
the author hopes that what follows will be both instructive and interesting to
the reader and capable of raising the blood pressure of the academic community.
Enjoy!
1.7- (Note: A rigorous derivation of the gravitational field and its
effects on cosmology is provided in the author's text "Gravity" copyrighted in
1988. This text was sent, at the time, to individuals identified as having a
reputation in the field. Since then, the author has read some of the conclusions
presented in "Gravity" in books subsequently written by a few of those
individuals. Due to the controversial nature of this text, unless required by
the subject matter, the names of individuals and publications have been omitted
in order to prevent their possible embarrassment.)
Chapter 2 - Historical Background
2.1- By the last quarter of the 19th century, the Science of Physics was considered to be nearly complete. The electromagnetic equations of James Clark Maxwell had explained electromagnetic radiation and light was considered to be a vibrational wave propagating through a medium called the Aether in a manner similar to the propagation of sound through air. Using Maxwell's Electromagnetic Equations, J. J. Thomson derived the relationship between mass and energy, E=M*C2, in 1888 when the alleged source of that relationship (Dr. Einstein) was still in knee pants. (The author has since received an E-mail which asserts that a Mr. Olinto D. Pretto of Italy published this relationship in 1903. This really doesn't matter too much, what is clear is that Dr. Einstein was not the original source of the relationship for which he was credited.) A difficulty which remained was that light was known to be a shear vibration acting in a plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation rather than a compressional vibration acting in the direction of propagation. Since shear vibrations cannot propagate through a fluid, it was recognized that the Aether must be solid. This conclusion raised the interesting question of how material particles could move through a solid without resistance. Even so, the concept of the Aether was so persuasive that the next logical step was an attempt to measure the effects of changes in the velocity of the Earth as it traveled through the Aether in its orbit around the Sun.
2.2- The most significant of the experiments was conducted by the the team of Michelson and Morley. They devised an experiment using optical interferometry which attempted to measure the difference in the velocity of propagation of light between two mutually perpendicular directions. To everyone's chagrin, the experiment produced a null result! No interference effects were observed as the Earth changed its velocity through the hypothetical Aether by 36 miles per second over the course of a year even though the
precision, accuracy, and stability of the experimental setup was more than adequate to reveal the anticipated effects.
2.3- Initial attempts at explaining the null result of the Michelson-Morley Experiment produced unsuccessful concepts such as the Aether Drift Theory in which the Aether was presumed to be carried along with the Earth, but by 1903 the Lorentz Contraction-Aether Relativity Theory was published. The key to this theory was the Fitzgerald Contraction which asserted that the length of material objects, in the direction of motion, was reduced as a function of the velocity of the object through the Aether in proportion to (1-V2/C2)0.5 but were unaffected in directions perpendicular to that velocity. It was immediately recognized by Larmor that the Fitzgerald Contraction required an equivalent slowing in the rate of passage of time. Since, by that time Lorentz had used the known equivalence between mass and energy to provide the effects of velocity on mass,
1/(1-V2/C2)0.5, transformations involving the expression (1-V2/C2)0.5 became known as Lorentz Transformations. Collectively, these transformations became known as the Lorentz Transformation-Aether Theory. A more meaningful name would seem to be the Aether Relativity Theory, and it will be referred to by this name where necessary to distinguish it from the Special Theory of Relativity. Under this theory, velocity through the Aether caused measuring instruments to change their calibrations in obedience to the Lorentz Transformations. Those changes in calibration were of exactly the correct amount to insure that, in conjunction with the finite velocity of light, it was impossible to observe effects produced by our velocity through space (the Aether).
- Redefinition:- Since the Lorentz Transformation,
(1-V2/C2)0.5, appears many times in the material which follows follows, the symbol 'Bv'
will be substituted. Thus:
Bv=(1-V2/C2)0.5.
2.4- Since everything we experience, including the physiological
sensations and behavior of our bodies, is the result of a measurement of some
type, our absolute velocity with respect to space could never be observed. No
matter what one's absolute velocity was, he could always assume himself to be at
rest with respect to space and that everything that was not at rest with respect
to him was moving through the Aether. With the effects on observations imposed
by the Aether Relativity Theory, measurement of an observer's velocity with
respect to the Aether was prevented by the fact that the finite velocity of
light made it impossible to determine when two physically separated events were
simultaneous. When the inability of an observer to communicate faster than the
velocity of light is considered, it is simple but tedious to show, using
elementary algebra, that the Aether Relativity Theory insures a null result of
any attempt to determine an absolute velocity (velocity with respect to the
Aether). An observer is therefore free to consider that any velocity reference
frame between the limits of +/-C is valid as a base reference frame
for making physical observations.
2.5- At the time, three difficulties seemed to remain with the Aether
Relativity Theory. The first objection was that it did not account for the
effects of velocity on electromagnetic phenomena. This objection was not a
legitimate one. The three Lorentz Transformations allow the derivation of
equivalent Lorentz Transformations for all physical parameters, including those
of electromagnetics, by applying Dimensional Analysis to known physical
equations. When these derived transformations are applied to electromagnetic
phenomena, the Aether Relativity Theory is found to be valid for electromagnetic
phenomena as well. The second objection was the question as to why, if the
classical Aether is the absolute zero velocity reference for space itself,
should Nature conspire to conceal our velocity with respect to it. That may have
been a reasonable question at the time, but in the interim, quantum physicists
have concluded that the forces between particles, such as between the atoms in a
measuring stick, are electromagnetic in nature and are alleged to result from
the exchange of virtual photons. A corollary to that conclusion is that since
electromagnetic effects travel at the velocity of light, matter must adjust its
parameters so that the velocity of light appears unchanged to a local observer.
(It is fortunate that these adjustments occur. If they did not, travel at high
velocity, such as the velocity of the Earth in its orbit or the velocity of the
Sun in its galactic orbit, could be extremely hazardous to one's health.) The
final objection to the Aether Relativity Theory is that if the Aether is a solid
medium, as required for the propagation of the light as a transverse wave,
matter should not be able to travel through it without resistance. A means by
which Nature may have resolved that objection is provided later.
2.6- In 1905 Dr. Einstein, apparently sensing an opportunity in the
alleged failure of the Aether Relativity Theory to correctly predict the
electromagnetic effects associated with velocity, published the Special Theory
of Relativity. This theory was based upon Poincare's Principle of Relativity and
asserted that any velocity between the limits of +/-C could be
considered to be valid for use as a zero velocity reference for the purpose of
physical observations. The Special Theory of Relativity provided the same
transformations for mass, length, and time as did the Aether Relativity Theory
published two years earlier. Under both approaches, any inconsistencies
resulting from the effects of velocity on observations were concealed by the
effects of the Lorentz Transformations and the fact that the finite velocity of
light made the absolute synchronization of physically separated clocks
impossible. As with the Special Theory of Relativity, the Aether Relativity Theory allowed one, regardless of his velocity through space, to be free to consider himself at rest and apply the Lorentz Transformations to observations made in systems which were moving with respect
to himself. It must be pointed out that Special Relativity did not have the
difficulties with respect to electromagnetic phenomena alleged to be a weakness
of the Aether Relativity Theory for the simple reason that, instead of resolving
those difficulties, it arbitrarily defined them as non-existent.
2.7- When one compares the Aether Relativity Theory and Special
Relativity objectively, one finds that they are identical theories and differ
only in philosophical interpretation. Under the Aether Relativity Theory, space
is filled with a medium called the Aether which acts as the framework for the
Universe and our velocity through that Aether is concealed by the effects
described above. Under Special Relativity, the absolute velocity reference
represented by the Aether is omitted since it does not appear in the
mathematics. Both theories conclude that the effects of velocity on measuring
instruments (including the physiological sensors of our bodies) and the finite
velocity of light make it appear to any observer that he is at rest and that
everything having a velocity relative to him is in motion. It should be obvious
to all that the Aether Relativity Theory is a special case solution of the
Special Theory of Relativity in which one of the infinite number of zero
velocity references frames considered to be valid under Special Relativity is
the correct one even though one cannot determine his velocity with respect to
it. Special Relativity takes the position that, since our velocity with respect
to an absolute spatial reference cannot be determined by observation, it is
meaningless to consider the existence of an absolute velocity reference as part
of physical theory. As we shall see, not only can our absolute spatial velocity
be measured, asserting that it can't violates a basic rule. One should be
extremely careful in declaring something to be impossible. Invariably as soon as
such a declaration is made, some damned fool will come along and do it.
2.8- Recognition that our absolute velocity through space cannot be
measured is a far cry from a proof that an absolute velocity does not exist. If
it were proven that the absolute velocity reference represented by the Aether
was not valid, then it would be proven that one of the velocities that Special
Relativity allows to be considered as at rest can not be used as a basis for
physical experiments. Such a proof would also be a proof that Special Relativity
was invalid. Apparently, Dr. Einstein thought the interpretations associated
with the Aether Relativity Theory to be correct since it has been reported that
he maintained a belief in absolute simultaneity between physically separated
events (a belief which requires the existence of the Aether) for 25 years after
the publication of Special Relativity. He also is reported to have warned that
"we have not proven that the Aether doesn't exist, we have only proven that we
do not need it [for computations]".
2.9- Since the Aether Relativity Theory preceded the Special Theory of
Relativity by two years and was in actuality the same theory in a different
form, it was necessary to make a determination between them. That became a
matter of belief rather than proof and, as the multitudinous deaths in religious
wars over the centuries have amply demonstrated, the more unprovable a belief
is, the more savagely men will fight to defend it. Such a savagery occurred in
the discussions which followed. The Aether Relativity Theory was advocated by a
cadre of physical scientists whose primary reliance was on their physical
insights and who used their mathematical skills to quantify the results of those
insights. Special Relativity was advocated by a different cadre of physicists
who had mastered mathematics well but who had found that their use of physical
insights, which, like art, requires an innate aptitude in addition to training,
were unreliable. Since talent is scarce in any field, the advocates of Special
Relativity won the battle. The proponents of the Aether Relativity Theory were
ridiculed by having the Aether compared to the Emperor's Clothes in the fable of
the same name. The general public was led to believe that the mystery resulting
from the null results of the Michelson-Morley Experiment was resolved by Dr.
Einstein even though Fitzgerald, Larmor and Lorentz had achieved that result two
years earlier.
2.10- The author is seriously troubled by the historical accounts. The
fact that the knowledge and insight to resolve the dilemma represented by the
Michelson-Morley Experiment had already been provided by truly intelligent men
(Thompson, Lorentz, Larmor, and especially Fitzgerald), degrades Dr. Einstein's
contribution in this area from a work of brilliance to the rather trivial
exercise of formulating the existing knowledge into mathematical terms for
easier use in computational activities. [Dr. Einstein's famous equation,
(dS)2=(dX)2+(dY)2+(dZ)2-C*(dT)2, which is accepted as the most succinct means of defining the effects of
velocity, follows from the fact that the Lorentz Transformations for length and
time are identical to the Pythagorean Theorem.] However, the politics of the
scientific community was not served by crediting Fitzgerald with the conceptual
breakthrough since his approach did not suit its goals. As a result, Dr.
Einstein was given that honor and was eventually proclaimed a deity of the new
religion while the true contributors were relegated to footnotes in textbooks.
2.11- The strength of the feelings involved were brought home to the
writer by personal experience. In the late 1950's, assuming that Special
Relativity had been proven to validly represent our reality, the author began a
good faith study of the subject for his own satisfaction. It was rather
upsetting to learn the information provided in the previous paragraphs. Digging
deeper, the author borrowed a technique from mathematics to show that the Aether
Relativity interpretation must be correct because assuming the non-existence of
the Aether led to an absurdity. In due course, this material was shown to a
physicist whose specialty was Special Relativity. The man's reaction was
astonishing. He did not take the intellectually reasonable although undiplomatic
step of telling the author that he was an ignorant fool, instead he went into a
rage and accused the author of being "dangerous heretic who must be suppressed".
(It is fortunate for the author that this isn't the 16th century.) His violent
emotional reaction was akin to that of the Muslim Ayatollah who allegedly
condemned the author of the "Satanic Verses" to death. The reaction could only
have come from an individual whose quasi-religious beliefs were threatened. They
were not the reactions of a man who accepted Dr. Einstein's dictum that the
search for truth must take precedence over the teachings of established
authority regardless of the prestige of that authority.
2.12- In 1915, Dr. Einstein published his General Theory of
Relativity. In deriving this theory he combined a new and apparently original
concept, the Principle of Equivalence, with the Principle of Relativity upon
which Special Relativity was based. Simply stated, the Principle of Equivalence
asserts that gravitational acceleration can be considered to be equivalent to
inertial acceleration. Unfortunately, Dr. Einstein failed to recognize that
Tensor Calculus cannot be used to derive a relativistic theory (as discussed
later) and employed that mathematical technique in the theory's derivation. Its
use for such a purpose introduced a mathematical error of a type which, if
persistently made by a student of Elementary Calculus, would result in a failing
grade for the course. As a result of this error, the derivation of General
Relativity was impossible in terms of our observable three dimensional Euclidian
Space.
2.13- Instead of recognizing and correcting the source of his
difficulty, Dr. Einstein took the easy way out and arbitrarily added an extra
degree of freedom by asserting that space was curved by the presence of mass and
was properly described by the non-Euclidian geometry of Riemann. Objectively,
his approach might be compared to that of a mechanic who installs the wrong part
in a machine by hammering it into place instead of obtaining the correct part.
Discussions of General Relativity at the time justified its validity by two
rather questionable and irresponsible arguments. The first argument was that
there was no reason not to accept the idea that space was curved "since no one
could prove that it wasn't" (a proof that space is flat will be described
later). The second argument was that, while General Relativity taught that the
gravitational field created energy from nothingness, the Law of Conservation of
Energy was not violated since the energy which was created could not escape from
the field. It would seem, from this reasoning, that the Law of Conservation of
Energy obeyed the Eleventh Commandment, "Thou Shalt Not Get Caught". (Newtonian
Gravitational Theory also asserts that the gravitational field creates energy
and allows that energy to escape from the field. That theory must be forgiven
for this deficiency because, in the 16th century, it had not been recognized
that energy must be conserved.)
2.14- As a result of the defect in its method of derivation, the
relativistic corrections to the classical Newtonian Gravitational Theory
provided by General Relativity were not rigorously correct but were only
approximations. At the field strength existing at the surface of the Sun, these
corrections revised the predictions of Newtonian Gravitational Theory by one
part in a million. Due to the weakness of the Sun's field, General Relativity
was able to predict, to within the limits of experimental accuracy, the
anomalous precession of Mercury's orbit, the bending of the path of a ray of
light as it passed close to the Sun and the slowing of time at the surface of
the Sun evidenced by the red shift of its spectral lines. The effects caused by
residual errors in General Relativity resulting from its invalid method of
derivation are about a million times too small to be observed within the Solar
System.
2.15- It has been asserted that observations made of the red shift of
the spectral lines in the light from extremely dense and/or extremely massive
stars and the observed change in the orbital period of massive binary stars due
to gravitational radiation provide the necessary verification for General
Relativity in strong fields. However, in order for such observations to provide
that verification, they must be combined with orbital observations made by an
on-site observer. Until mankind has the equivalent of Star Trek's Warp Drive,
observational validation of General Relativity in strong gravitational fields
would seem to be impossible. At present, all that the spectral shift of light
from massive stellar objects proves is that gravity is a relativistic phenomena.
It does not prove that General Relativity is the correct description of that
phenomena. As pointed out earlier, Dr. Einstein was apparently aware of
limitations in his derivation of General Relativity since it has been reported
that he was uneasy about the extension of the theory to extremely strong fields.
Chapter 3 - The Nature of The Einstein Hoax
3.1- Since the Special Theory of Relativity and the Aether Relativity
Theory which predated it are actuality the same theory and may be derived one from the other, the question arises as to the nature of Dr. Einstein's contribution to the solution of problems related to velocity. In a historical text published in the 1920's it was stated that his principle contribution was the demonstration that mathematics could be used to derive physical theory and, since mathematics could be taught to anyone, Science did not need to await the
contributions of the "few great minds that arise in each century" (a category which most certainly includes Fitzgerald) to achieve progress.
3.2- The insidious end result of that philosophy was verified by a
telephone call received by the author from a physicist at a highly respected Ivy
League University whose status was sufficient to have had his work described in
Time Magazine. The author was advised that the physicist's sole job was to search for mathematical relationships which provided predictions and to devise and perform experiments which determined whether those predictions agreed with observation. It was not considered to be the physicist's job to provide an understanding of the mechanisms by which Nature achieved its results. That task was the proper province of philosophers and meta-physicists and was beneath the dignity of physicists. This viewpoint is reinforced by one of the most respected theoretical relativistic physicists in the world in a statement in one of the most prestigious scientific publications in the world. He stated that he was unconcerned as to whether a theory correspond to reality because he didn't know what reality was, he only was concerned that a theory correctly predict experimental results. To place that high sounding philosophy in perspective, both a highly talented musician and a trained circus seal can play "Yankee Doodle" on a set of tuned bicycle horns and receive the applause of an audience. While the musician would probably want money and the seal would be content with a fish, the real difference is that the musician would understand the meaning of the music while the trained seal would have learned to play the tune through repetitive actions induced by a trainer. Unlike their counterparts of a century ago, it would seem that today many mainstream physicists do not feel the need to understand the phenomena upon which they are working but are content to do their work by manipulating mathematics and experiment using procedures they have learned only by rote. It is left to the reader to draw his own conclusions as to whether such an analogy is fair.
3.3- The publication of Special Relativity provided a golden opportunity for the majority of the academic community. Under the interpretations of Nature provided by Special Relativity the door was opened for the majority of its members who were without the talent required to understand its workings. At the same time, those with the necessary talent needed to understand reality instinctively recognized that contradictions were implicit in
Special Relativity (described later) and could not accept the subject as it was presented. (Teachers of Special Relativity report that a significant percentage of intelligent and mathematically skilled students cannot master the subject.) The inability to accept Special Relativity, as presented, effectively eliminates individuals with a strong sense of reality (which by another name is called common sense) from the ranks of those who acted as advisors to PhD candidates and from the roles of those who perform the peer reviews which determine what is
published in scientific journals. As a result, a selection process was gradually put in place which insured that only material which did not threaten the validity of Special and General Relativity was published. Material which appeared to be a threat, no matter how powerfully presented and how intellectually and observationally valid, was effectively squelched. On the
other hand, material which supported Special and General Relativity, no matter how trivial or absurd, was readily published. Once this point was reached, it was possible to make the claim that the subject matter could not be understood in terms of common sense. It could only be understood in terms of mathematics and there were a limited number of minds in the world who could truly comprehend Dr. Einstein's work.
3.4- Early civilizations were based upon the invention of agriculture and the ability to determine the proper time for planting and harvesting crops was very important. In those societies, a small group of men studied the heavens and learned how to divine the seasons from the positions of the Sun, Moon, Planets, and Stars. Instead of passing along their knowledge, they kept it to themselves and became priests who provided life and death information for society as a whole. As a result of their monopoly of vital knowledge, more and more power and wealth flowed to them and in time they formed a religion. That religion eventually became the basis of all powerful states ruled by god-kings. In such a society, heresy was the most heinous crime imaginable, with revelation of the secrets of the religion to the masses a close second. From the vantage point of history, the motivation of these priests was obvious. They worked to
achieve enormous power and luxury for themselves at the expense of the peasants.
They did not work for the benefit of society as a whole.
3.5- The establishment of the relativistic effects as a mystery which could not be understood in terms of common sense placed the community of physicists into a position similar to that of those ancient priests. They possessed knowledge which could only be understood by those individuals who possessed the appropriate 'yup' in the form of a PhD in Physics. Naturally, no one whose innate sense of reality caused him to question the conclusions of
Relativity ever received such a degree. (When the writer was interviewed for his first job, he was asked what kind of 'yup' he had. Puzzled, he asked for an explanation and was told that, when you spent the money it costs to go to college, you were not buying knowledge, you were buying a 'yup'. That 'yup' is required so that when you seek a job and the interviewer asks if you went to
college, you can answer 'yup'. Of course, 'yup's from different schools are rated differently, but the prime purpose of schooling is to achieve that all important 'yup', it is not the acquisition of knowledge.)
3.6- The Einstein Hoax consists of maintaining the quasi-religious
belief that the phenomena associated with velocity and gravitation cannot be understood by ordinary men using their common sense. It can only be understood in terms of mathematics performed by initiates who possessed the prerequisite 'yup's. Whether it is recognized or not, all of the essentials of a religion are present. There is a deity in the form of Dr. Einstein, who, like most of the men who have had that role thrust on them over the centuries, probably did not seek or even relish it. It has an established but unproven set of truths which were
revealed by that deity. Finally, it is protected by selected defenders of the faith who, in this case, act through the peer review process to insure that heresy in any form is never published. The motive for the maintaining of the Einstein Hoax is rather obvious, it's money. Society expends a large sums supporting this priesthood through tuitions paid by parents and grants by
governments and industry. The donors believe they are paying for the teaching of the young, however, that teaching is mostly done by graduate students who are seeking their own 'yup's. The established possessors of the necessary 'yup's spend most of their time in research because, not only is that activity more interesting, it serves to advance their tenure protected careers. Should Special and/or General Relativity be shown to be fundamentally flawed, the careers of Relativists, most Cosmologists, and those working on Quantum Gravity and/or
Unified Field Theory will have been wasted.
3.7- In the material which follows, the author will attempt to provide
and justify the heresy required to remake Relativity Theory into a subject which both can be understood at the undergraduate level in terms of common sense and which will eliminate glaring defects in our current understanding of the fundamental principles of Nature and of Cosmology.
Chapter 4 - Does The Aether Exist?
4.1- Since the conclusion that the Aether does not exist is based upon
unproven assertions on the part of key members of the community of physical
scientists rather than upon evidence which would be admissible in a court of
law, the subject must be examined with extreme care to guard against the
possibility that evidence which would support its existence has not been
knowingly or unknowingly suppressed. Remember, there are strong political
reasons which act to bias the judgment of the academic community against the
concept of the Aether. Determining whether the Aether exists requires asking
questions which are readily answered by one interpretation, and which seem
unanswerable by the other. Such questions encounter strong resistance when
asked. In addition to those questions, experiments performed by quantum
physicists have demonstrated the feasibility both of measuring the absolute
velocity of an experimental setup through space and of communicating at
velocities greater than the velocity of light. Achieving these results requires
only minor modifications to their experimental arrangements.
4.2- How Does Light "Know" How Fast to Travel?:- This question arises from the fact that the velocity of light is independent of the velocity of its
source. Under the interpretation of reality provided by Special Relativity,
light is considered to consist of particles called photons which travel
ballistically through empty space. Under the interpretation provided by the
Aether Relativity Theory, light consists of packets(photons) of electromagnetic
vibration transmitted through a medium called the Aether. Since one would expect
the velocity of ballistic particles to be affected by the velocity of their
source, Special Relativity would seem to be incapable of dealing with this
question. The Aether Relativity Theory, on the other hand, has no difficulty.
The velocity of propagation of a vibration in a medium is determined by the
properties of the medium and is independent of the velocity of its source.
4.3- Consider a car traveling down a road towards a target (Figure
4.1). On board the car is a man with a rifle. At the side of the road is another
man with an identical rifle. At the instant that the man in the car passes the
man at the side of the road, they both fire at the target. As expected, the
velocity of the bullet fired from the car is increased by the car's velocity and
it reaches the target before the bullet fired from the side of the road. The
sounds of the shots travel together at the velocity of sound in air and reach
the target at the same time. The bullets are material particles projected to the
target and travel at different velocities. The sounds of the shots are
vibrations traveling through a medium and travel at the same velocity. Consider
next an analogous experiment (physically realizable) in which a rocket is
passing Mars on its way to Earth. At the instant that the rocket passes Mars, a
radio on the rocket and a radio on Mars send a signal to the Earth. Along the
whole path traveled by those signals, they remain side by side and they arrive
at the Earth simultaneously. They travel together despite the fact that they
were transmitted from sources having a velocity difference which could not be
compensated at the transmitters since each transmitter was ignorant of the
velocity of the other. Just as the simultaneous arrival of the bullets at the
target in the preceding example would cause a reasonable man to suspect some
form of chicanery, would not the same suspicions be aroused by the assertion of
Special Relativity that photons travel ballistically through empty space at a
velocity which is independent of the velocity of their source. It is difficult
to envision a means by which the independence of their velocities from the
velocities of their sources could occur unless photons were wavelike
disturbances propagating through a medium. To date no explanations, other than
the reliance on some form of magic, have been provided by the proponents of
Special Relativity. Instead, they have shouted down the question whenever it was
raised.
4.4- Why Does Light Travel at the Velocity of C?:- Current orthodoxy asserts that the Aether is not required to explain the propagation of light at
its velocity of C. All that is required is the magnetic permeability, u', and
the dielectric constant, e', of space. The velocity of light is then determined
by the expression C=(u'*e')0.5. As an analogy, if one
strikes the end of a steel rod with a hammer, the sound of the blow propagates
along the rod at a velocity, V, determined by the elasticity, e, and the
density, d, of the rod in accordance with the expression
V=1/(e/d)0.5. If one accepts the above explanation for
the velocity of light, consistency would require that he be willing to accept
the conclusion that, since the propagation of sound at its velocity of V
requires only the elasticity and density of the rod, the rod itself may be
removed and only its elasticity and density retained to explain the propagation
of the sound of the blow at the velocity V. While such a conclusion is obviously
silly with respect to the rod, somehow it does not seem silly to Relativists
when it is applied to Special Relativity's interpretation of the propagation of
light.
4.5- How Does the Speed of a Clock After a Change in Velocity Compare with
its Speed Before the Velocity Change?:- Consider, if your will, the following
physically realizable experiment performed in compliance with the mathematical
predictions of Special Relativity Theory and/or the Aether Relativity Theory.
There are two locations, perhaps the Earth (reference frame A) and Mars
(reference frame B) as shown in Figure 4.2 , which are traveling at a
significant velocity, V, with respect to each other. Observers at each location
measure the velocity of the other location using Doppler radar as
+V and -V respectively. There are identical clocks at
each location which have been synchronized by radio signal. Because of the
finite velocity of light, the relative velocity between the observers causes
each of them to observe that the clock at the other location is running more
slowly than his clock. A rocket ship is at rest on the Earth and contains an
observer and a third identical clock. Both the observer on the Earth and the
observer in the rocket ship find that their clocks are running at the same speed
and that the clock on Mars is running more slowly. The observer on Mars observes
that both the clock on the Earth and the clock in the rocket are running more
slowly than his. The rocket then takes off and lands on Mars. The observers on
the Earth, on Mars, and on the rocket measure that the velocity of the rocket
has changed by +V. The observer on the Earth measures that the
clock on the rocket has slowed and it now runs at the same speed as the clock on
Mars. The observer on Mars measures that the clock on the rocket has sped up and
now runs at the same speed as his clock. The observer on the rocket observes no
change of the speed of his clock, but, observing that his velocity has changed
by V, concludes that its speed actually did change as a result of his change in
velocity and concludes that the change was concealed from him by the effects of
the Lorentz Transformation for Time.
4.6- With respect to the speed of the clock, the observer on the Earth
asserts that the speed of the clock on the rocket slowed, the observer on Mars
asserts that the speed of the clock on the rocket increased, and the observer on
the rocket agrees that the speed of his clock has changed but recognizes that
the change is concealed from him by relativistic effects. There is one test
result upon which all three observers agree and which therefore must be accepted
as observationally verified. The change in velocity of the rocket produced a
change in the speed of its clock. Under the interpretations of the Aether
Relativity Theory there is no conceptual difficulty. The change in the velocity
of the rocket caused the speed of its clock to change uniquely, but the nature
of that change is concealed from observation. The concepts of Special
Relativity, however, produce an absurdity. One event, the change in the velocity
of the rocket, has produced two different and mutually exclusive results. The
change in velocity of the rocket has caused its clock to both slow down and to
speed up, depending upon whether the Earth or Mars is considered to be
stationary. Since there was a single event, the change in the velocity of the
rocket, only a single result can have occurred. At this point, readers who have
been trained in Special Relativity will object. They will state that the change
in velocity of the rocket involves acceleration and the Special Theory of
Relativity was not derived for accelerated systems. Such an objection is
irrelevant. All observations were made under conditions of zero acceleration and
the Special Theory of Relativity is clearly applicable. A famous author has been
quoted to the effect that the true measure of intelligence is the ability to
hold two mutually exclusive ideas at the same time. False! The
holding of two mutually exclusive ideas at the same time is evidence of a mind
that is too lazy and/or incapable of resolving the inconsistency by correcting
one or both of the ideas and who is too arrogant to admit the need for the
correction and/or his inability to make it.
4.7- Enter the Tachyon:- In the 1960's it was recognized that the
Lorentz Transformations did not prohibit velocities greater than the velocity of
light. Instead they demonstrated that the velocity of light represented a
velocity which material particles or objects could approach but not achieve
because, at that velocity, the Lorentz Transformation became zero. At the
velocity of light, kinetic energy (or mass if you prefer) became infinite and
the rate of passage of time became zero. At velocities greater than the velocity
of light, the infinities and zeros do not occur and it is theoretically possible
for matter to travel at those velocities. Hypothetical particles which traveled
at velocities greater than the velocity of light were postulated and given the
name tachyons. For velocities greater than the velocity of light, the quantity
within the square root sign in the Lorentz Transformation becomes negative and
the Lorentz Transformation may be rewritten. It then becomes
i*(V2/C2-1)0.5 , where
i is equal to (-1)0.5.
4.8- At this point, readers might question whether i has any
physical meaning since (-1)0.5 can exist only in one's
imagination. Indeed, this was the viewpoint for several centuries until it was
realized that the presence of i in a physical equation could be
considered to represent a rotation of an effect into an axis which was
perpendicular to the axis of the original coordinate system and was therefore
unobservable. This concept has been found to be quite useful in the physical
sciences and particularly in Electrical and Electronic Engineering since it
allows phenomena which occur in two perpendicular axes to be represented in
terms of the algebra normally used for a single axis problem. To observers
confined to making their observations in the real axis, effects occurring in the
imaginary axes are not directly observable and can only be inferred. Since
i represents a rotation through 90 degrees from the real axis to the
imaginary axis, as one might expect, equations containing
i2 represents a rotation of 180 degrees from the
positive real axis to the negative real axis and produce observable effects
which are reversed in sign.
4.9- While most of the properties of the hypothetical tachyon occur
along the unobservable imaginary axis, it has at least one property whose
Lorentz Transformation involves i2 and therefore
occurs in the real axis where observation is possible. That property is its
velocity. (Since velocity is length divided by time, both of which are subject
to Lorentz Transformations, the Lorentz Transformation for a tachyon's velocity
contains i2.) It is not surprising that the
tachyon has never been observed as a particle, since in addition to the fact
that many particles have been predicted long before they were observed, it would
not be recognized as a particle because some of its key properties would be
unobservable. It is possible, however, to draw a conclusion as to the at rest
velocity of a tachyon. The at rest velocity of a particle traveling below the
velocity of light is the velocity at which the magnitude of its Lorentz
Transformation Bv is a maximum (V equals zero). By
analogy, the at rest velocity of the tachyon would be the velocity at which the
magnitude of its Lorentz Transformation is also at its maximum. Since this
occurs when V is infinite, the at rest velocity of the tachyon should also be
infinite. Experiments by quantum physicists have shown that mysterious effects
called quantum numbers propagate at a velocities which are significantly faster
than the velocity of light, possibly at an infinite velocity. Quantum numbers
would seem to have something in common with the hypothetical tachyon.
4.10- The very concept of the tachyon is devastating to the idea that
Special Relativity is a valid representation of reality and it was vital to
those who had built their careers around the Special Theory of Relativity that
the idea of tachyons be discredited if the Aether Relativity Theory were to
continue to be suppressed. To see why this should be so, consider the logic
contained in the following statements:
- A:- If I had a microscope, I would observe the existence of germs.
- B:- The existence of germs does not depend upon the existence of the
microscope.
The first statement asserts that, except for the case where microscopes cause
germs, germs exist regardless of whether they have been observed. The second
statement removes the escape clause from the first statement and it becomes
equivalent to "germs exist". Now consider the following analogous
statements:
- C:- If I could communicate using tachyons, I would be able to establish
absolute simultaneity between physically separated locations, measure my
velocity with respect to space itself, and thereby verify the Aether
Relativity Theory.
- D:- The validity of the Aether Relativity Theory does not depend upon my
ability to communicate using tachyons.
A little reflection should convince the reader that, if statement D is true,
the mere fact that I can conceive of communicating through the use of tachyons
demonstrates that the limitation imposed on the Special Theory of Relativity by
Aether Relativity Theory represents reality. The classical Aether must
exist!
4.11- Since it was vital that the idea of tachyons be suppressed and
the fact that they had not been observed is not sufficient to accomplish that
suppression, another approach was required. It was asserted that communication
by tachyons would violate causality. (Causality is a very reasonable concept
which asserts that a result cannot occur prior to its cause.) As an example,
consider sending a signal by tachyon from the Earth to the Moon. If the time of
transmission of the signal was 11:00:00 AM and the tachyon arrived
at the Moon at 10:59:59 AM, it would seem to imply that it arrived
at the Moon one second before it was transmitted. Literally interpreted, such a
result would be a clear violation of causality. The argument falls apart when it
is remembered that the clock on the Moon was synchronized with the clock on the
Earth by an electromagnetic signal. If the Earth-Moon system were traveling
through the Aether in a direction towards the Moon at a velocity of 0.81 times
the velocity of light, the clock on the Moon would have a synchronization error
causing it to be one second late with respect to the clock on the Earth. The
apparent violation of causality would then be explained as being caused by the
Earth-Moon system's velocity through the Aether. There are only two ways in
which communication by tachyon can produce a violation of the Principle of
Causality. The first possibility occurs if the tachyon arrives early by an
amount of time greater than the observed time for light to make the trip. The
second possibility is if tachyons were sent on a round trip from the Earth to
the Moon and back and arrived on Earth before they were sent. While there is a
school of thought which suggest that this can happen, it is based upon a
misapplication of the Special Theory of Relativity.
4.12- The "Fictitious" Forces of Acceleration:- Newton's Second Law of Motion states that for every action there is an equal an opposite reaction. An
exception to this rule seems to be the forces associated with inertial and
gravitational accelerations. A force must be applied to an object to change its
velocity, but there is no apparent opposing force to match the applied force.
The same situation occurs when one considers the force of gravity. As you sit in
your chair you are conscious of a force pressing you against it, but, as with
inertial acceleration, there is no apparent opposing force matching it. As a
result, the opposing forces required by Newtons's Second Law of Motion for both
inertial and gravitational forces are referred to as fictitious. It is sometimes
asserted that the General Theory of Relativity has shown that what appears to be
the force of gravity does not occur but is a manifestation of the curvature of
space associated with the source of the gravitational field. As we shall see
later, General Relativity does not eliminate gravity as a force, it replaces it
with the observable component of an enormous force acting along an unobservable
fourth spatial axis. If one accepts the existence of the classical Aether, the
fictitious forces present no conceptual difficulty since they are acting against
the rigid medium of the Aether. Under Special Relativity, on the other hand,
there is no medium for these forces to react against, and one is forced to
accept the existence of exceptions to Newtons's Second Law of Motion.
4.13- Action at a Distance:- One of the reasons the concept of the
Aether was accepted in the 19th Century was the need to explain the ability of
forces to act between particles or objects which were separated in space. With
the acceptance of Special Relativity, the Aether was banished from physical
theories and another means of explaining the ability of these forces to act was
required. The result was the introduction of the concept of virtual particles
which bounced back and forth to produce the observed forces in a manner
analogous to the production of force between two athletes throwing a medicine
ball to each other. That concept has a difficulty. The mutual exchange of a
medicine ball can only produce a repulsive force between the athletes. In order
to produce an attractive force, the mass of the medicine ball would need to be
negative. To date no theoretician seems to have raised the possibility that such
is the case for the postulated virtual particles and one must conclude that, to
supply an attractive force, the virtual particle must be under tension and
consequently the distance over which it can act is limited by its size. If the
exchange of virtual particles produces forces which act at a distance, they
would themselves constitute a medium equivalent to the Aether and the need for
the Aether to explain action at a distance would not have been resolved, it
would merely been pushed down one level into the virtual particle. Since the
advocates of Special Relativity have not addressed questions such as these, Dr.
Einstein's statement that the need for the Aether had been eliminated is not
true, it only appears to be true because embarrassing questions have been swept
under the rug.
4.14- The precept that electrostatic forces result from the exchange
of virtual photons is readily tested. Such an experiment is diagramed in Figure 4.3. In this experiment, two metal plates are suspended parallel to each other
in a large electromagnetically shielded and evacuated chamber. The plates are
located symmetrically about the center of the chamber. Midway between the plates
is a wire which is capacitively coupled to a suitable radio receiver. The plates
are connected to high voltage D-C sources of equal amplitude and opposite
polarity. The high voltages on the plates produce a strong electrostatic force
of attraction between them which, since it acts over a distance, must either
result from an electric stress in the Aether or, in accordance with the
currently accepted concepts, from the exchange of virtual photons between the
plates. (A magnetic equivalent of this experiment could be conducted with
electromagnets substituted for the electrically charged plates.) The concept
that the force results from an electric stress in the Aether is straightforward
and needs no further explanation. The concept that the force results from the
exchange of virtual photons is more complex and requires further examination.
4.15- If the force between the plates results from the exchange of
virtual photons, then the relatively large spacing between the plates insures
that the virtual photons have a fairly long wavelength and a frequency low
enough to allow them to be sensed by a conventional television set. As a result
of that low frequency, a large flux of virtual photons is required to produce
the force level that a high voltage can produce between the plates. A large
virtual photon flux will, in turn, induce a high level of random noise in the
wire located between the plates and will cause a high noise output in the radio
receiver. (The evacuation of the chamber insures that the noise was not
generated by ionized gas molecules.) While this experiment is readily executed,
it is not necessary for it to be performed. If electrostatic forces resulted
from the exchange of virtual photons, the electric fields which abound at
various locations, such as between the surface of the Earth and clouds or the
voltage on the picture tube of a TV set, would generate sufficient noise as to
render electromagnetic communication impossible.
4.16- Since we regularly use electromagnetic waves as a means of
communication and that communication seems unaffected by the presence of static
electrical fields, it is safe to conclude that electrostatic forces do not
result from the exchange of virtual photons. The only explanation which seems to
remain is that they result from a stress in the Aether. If both our experience
already denies, and a physically realizable experiment will also deny, that
virtual photons act as carriers of the electrostatic force, they are most
certainly ruled out as carriers of the magnetic force. If we are forced to
abandon the idea that virtual photons carry the electromagnetic forces,
consistency requires that we abandon the idea that virtual particles named
gluons carry forces within the nuclei of atoms. It is time to go back to the
subatomic drawing board. A possible nature of those forces will be discussed
later.
4.17- The Radiometric Measurement of Our Velocity Through Space:- In November 1977, a paper read at an American Astronomical Society convention in
Atlanta announced that measurements of the intensity of the microwave background
radiation of space in different directions showed that the Earth was moving
through space at a speed of about 700,000 miles per hour. The
experiments were conducted by radiometers installed in a U-2
aircraft flown at an altitude of 70,000 ft. with a methodology
which was apparently beyond challenge. The report of these experiments led to
consternation on the part of cosmologists because it did violence to their
existing concepts concerning the distribution of matter in space. An even more
significant result of these experiments was not recognized. The observance of
this velocity drives experimental nails into the coffin of the Special Theory of
Relativity because the validity of that theory, in comparison to the more
restrictive Aether Relativity Theory, depends on the fact that it is impossible
for an observer to measure his absolute velocity though space. As often happens,
as soon as one declares that something is impossible, some damned fool comes
along and does it. The experimenters just didn't play fair. Inadvertently, by
measuring the velocity of the Earth through space, they demolished the
underpinnings of the Special Theory of Relativity and established that the
Aether Relativity Theory was the correct interpretation of reality. (Up
with Fitzgerald, down with Einstein.)
4.18- Dirac's "Sea" of Negative Energy:- In the 1930's Dr. P. Dirac considered the effect of the impact of a high energy photon (e.g.-
106 electron volts) against a more massive particle. He
concluded theoretically that the impact would produce both an electron and a
positron and had the satisfaction of having that prediction verified by
observation. His theoretical treatment had one difficulty. It also concluded
that all of the matter in the Universe would vanish in a small fraction of a
microsecond. Since the Universe continues to exist, it was necessary to revise
the theory. The resulting revision was to consider that all of space was solidly
filled with negative energy (whatever that is). The production of the
electron-positron pair was considered to result when the impact of the photon
knocked an electron from that sea of negative energy and left a hole where the
electron had been. That hole represented a missing negative charge in the sea of
negative energy and appeared to us as a positive electron. One might reasonably
wonder how Dirac's concept of a sea of negative energy which pervades all of
space differs significantly from the concept of the classical Aether.
4.19- The Characteristics of the Aether:- The discussions to this
point, and more particularly those which follow in successive chapters, imply
that, in order for "reality" to have the properties which we observe, the Aether
must have, as a minimum, the following properties:-
- It must be a solid medium rather than a fluid. If it were not a solid
medium, transverse electromagnetic disturbances (light) would not propagate
since transverse disturbances cannot propagate through a fluid.
- It must have, as a minimum, a dielectric constant, a permeability, and
occupy a volume since these properties are readily observed.
- It apparently is absolutely continuous rather than composed of minute
particles. This continuity may well approach a zero size as a limit since it
behaves as if it had a "Q" which approaches infinity.
- A tuning fork made of steel will ring for a prolonged period after being
struck since steel is a high "Q" material. One made of lead will merely
"thunk" when struck since lead is a low "Q" material. Disturbances in the
Aether do not die out at a detectable rate while propagating through free
space suggesting that the Aether has a "Q" which is enormous and may well be
infinite.
- Material particles must be constructed in such a way that it is possible
for them to propagate through the solid Aether (Chapter 13).
4.20- Special Relativity and Occam's Razor:- It is sometimes asserted
that Occam's Razor shows that the Special Theory of Relativity is to be
preferred over the Lorentz Contraction-Aether Theory. Occam's Razor is a
philosophical construct which asserts that, when there are two or more
explanations of a phenomena, the most simple explanation should be chosen. In
the case of these theories, Occam's Razor is ambiguous. Computations based upon
Special Relativity are simpler than those strictly based upon the Lorentz
Transformation-Aether Theory for the reason that it allows the observer's
velocity reference frame to be used as the basis of computation rather than
requiring the use of an infinite number of velocity reference frames that would
seem to be required by the Lorentz Transformation-Aether Theory. The downside of
the Special Theory of Relativity is that it requires the acceptance of the idea
that an infinite number of velocity reference frames correctly represent
reality.
4.21- The Lorentz Transformation-Aether Theory, on the other hand,
asserts that there is only one absolute velocity reference frame, and it would
superficially seem to require the use of separate calculations for each of the
infinite number of possible velocities between the observers velocity reference
frame and the absolute velocity reference frame. However, such a complication
does not occur. As shown Figure 6.4 and the text which accompanies it, the
absolute reference frame cancels from all calculations and observations and the
mathematics of Special Relativity are completely applicable. (This happy effect
results from the fact that the Lorentz Transformations are multiplicatively
commutative. - See Chapter 8.)
4.22- The Implications of Maxwell's Equations:- Based upon the
discoveries of Faraday, Dr. Maxwell derived the famed equations which define the
electromagnetic field. According to early texts, he did this by imagining
"displacement currents occuring in space" even though he claimed not to have an
understanding of what those currents could be and when Faraday requested an
explanation of the theory in words, Maxwell is alleged to have been unable to
provide it. If the author is to believe a recent communication, the current
teaching is that Maxwell's Equations do not have a physical explanation,
they just are!
4.23- Dr. Maxwell derived his equations based on the idea of
"displacement currents" in space. To understand the reason for considering these
"currents", consider what happens when an A-C voltage is applied across the
plates of a capacitor consisting of two parallel plates in a vacuum as shown in
Figure 4.4. In this figure, the applied A-C voltage (which may be assumed to be
identical at the supply and the plates) causes an A-C current to flow in the
wires to the plates which is phased 90 degrees in advance of the voltage. Since
this is a series circuit, the current in all parts of the circuit must be
instantaneously the same. That means that the current must flow through the
space between the plates, but, since the conventional carrier of electric
current (e.g.- electrons, ions, etc.) cannot pass between the plates, the
current must flow between the plates without the mediation of charged particles.
In addition, a magnetic field which surrounds the electric field is generated in
proportional to its rate of change. Similarly, an electric field is generated in
proportion to the rate of change of the magnetic field, again phase shifted 90
degrees in advanceof the mmagnetic field. In combination, these two phase shifts
are 180 degrees, and are capable of sustaining an oscillation by feeding energy
cyclically from one field to the other without the intervention of any other
mechanism. Maxwell's Equations concisely describe the interaction and show
that such an oscillation will propagate as a wave disturbance which is part of
the electromagnetic spectrum.
4.24- The difficulty in describing Maxwell's Equations in words does
not derive from the equations themselves, the preceding paragraphs would seem to
do that quite nicely. The difficulty arises when one tries to reconcile them
with the "empty" space implied by Special Relativity. After all, how can
electrical currents flow in empty space and how can magnetic forces exist in
that space? On the other hand, if one considers that the space is filled with
the classical Aether, the problem vanishes. One could consider that the Aether
is stressed by the application of an electrical field. This stress reveals
itself as a negative electrostatic potential at one plate and a positive
electrostatic potential at the other plate and produces an attractive force
between the surfaces applying the field (space has a dielectric constant). (One
could also argue that the Aether contains two electrostatic components, positive
and negative, in juxtaposition, and these components are pulled apart by the
electric field) The rate at which the electric stress is applied produces a hoop
stress in the Aether which stores energy and which we observe as the magnetic
field (space has a magnetic permeability). The rate of change of the magnetic
field similarly produces an electric field which acts on the electric components
of the Aether. These two effects are not mirror images of each other, we observe
point electrostatic charges (electrons, positrons, etc.) but do not observe
point magnetic charges (monopoles). As we shall see later on, both the Velocity
and Gravitational Transformations for permeability and the dielectric constant
differ significantly. (Viewing the Aether in this manner provides an explanation
for an observed phenomena. If the Aether is sufficiently stressed by an
electromagnetic field, the possibility suggests itself that the stress is
relieved locally by a rupture which generates electon-positron pairs.)
Chapter 5 - The Resurrection of Absolute Velocity By Quantum
Experiments
5.1- While the preceding chapter is probably adequate to convince
individuals whose thought processes include common sense that the Aether
Relativity Theory and not Special Relativity represents reality, it will not
convince most members of the academic community. In order to acquire their PhDs,
they have, of necessity, allowed themselves to be brainwashed into submerging
common sense reasoning in favor of reasoning by formal procedures. In so doing,
not only they have they unknowingly suppressed the most powerful capability of
the brain, its pattern recognition capability, and concentrated on the
development of one of the brain's lesser capabilities, its ability to process
logic, they have made it possible to ignore aspects of the problem which are not
included in the postulate structure of the mathematics. To convince those
individuals, experimental evidence is required. Fortunately, that evidence has
been supplied by experiments in Quantum Physics.
5.2- An article in one of the world's most prestigious scientific
magazines in the late 1980's described experiments which demonstrated that the
polarization of paired photons (generated by a common source) was coupled in
such a way that changing the polarization of one photon changed the polarization
of the other. More significantly, they demonstrated that the velocity of the
polarization coupling between the paired photons was at least 4 times the
velocity of light. These results raise the question as to whether polarization,
which quantum physicists designate as the photon's quantum number, could be
considered to be coupled by an observable property of the as yet to be observed
tachyon. If so, one would expect that the coupling of the polarization of paired
photons would propagate at an infinite velocity. Since the energy content of a
photon does not change as a result of its direction of polarization, the Special
Theory of Relativity and/or the Aether Relativity Theory do not impose a
velocity limit on the transfer of information by the coupling of the plane of
polarization between paired photons. It should be noted that Special Relativity would seem to require that such polarization coupling propagate at an infinite velocity. The reason that the velocity of communication is limited to the velocity of light is that the communication is invariably encoded in the form of energy and the Lorentz Transformation for energy is 1/(1-V2/C2)0.5 which becomes infinite at the velocity of light and imaginary above that velocity. The situation changes when we examine polarization angle. The angle of polarization of a photon is measured in radians, which is a length along an arc divided by the radius of the arc. As such, polarization angle is a length divided by a length and is therefore dimensionless. The Lorentz Transformation for angle is unity for all velocities between +/- infinity. It is easily shown that this conclusion holds true even at the velocity of light where the determination of the transformation involves multiplying zero times infinity. If polarization coupling between "paired photons" does occur, Special Relativity would assert that it must occur at an infinite velocity in accordance even as the more rational of the two interpretations of Quantum Theory asserts that it does. Although the authors of the article made no such claim, perhaps because they wished their work to be published, the
experiments described in the article demonstrated both that our absolute
velocity through space could be measured (validating the Aether Relativity
Theory over the Special Theory of Relativity) and that communication at
velocities greater than the velocity of light was feasible with minor
modifications to the equipment.
5.3- In the article it was stated that attempts to use the apparatus
to communicate at velocities greater than the velocity of light resulted in the
transmission of noise instead of information. Their failure to achieve
communication resulted from the fact that, while they were obviously good
quantum physicists, they were not good communication engineers. In analogous
electronic terms, they were attempting to communicate by phase modulating a
randomly phased carrier. In such an arrangement, the randomly phased carrier
injects white noise that prevents the information, which is actually present in
the received signal, from being decoded. The experiment did demonstrate that, if
the carrier had been coherent, the desired propagation of information at
translight velocity would have been achieved. (Correction as of January 2004. The success of the basic experiment established that information was actually being transmitted faster than the velocity of light. The failure to successfully receive that information can only be attributed to an improper processing of the information or a poor signal to noise ratio.)
5.4- The experimental setup is diagramed in Figure 5.1. A photon
source is provided which contains excited atoms of a type which emit a pair of
photons of the same polarization in opposite directions whenever one of them
reverts to its unexcited state. Each of the photons of a pair (left and right)
are sent to an optical switch which sends its photons in one of two directions
in response to a command signal. Depending upon the setting of the switch, each
photon passes through a horizontally or vertically oriented polarizer and is
received by one of two photon detectors. (Two photon detectors are at each end
of the apparatus.) The outputs of the four detectors were compared in a
coincidence detector. The purpose of the coincidence detector is twofold. It
insures that the only detections which are recorded are those which occur as
simultaneous pairs at opposite end of the apparatus and therefore result from
photon pairs and not from spurious photons. It also allows the matching
detections to be sorted into four categories, horizontal/horizontal,
vertical/vertical, horizontal/vertical, and vertical/horizontal. The lengths of
the right and left halves of the experimental setup are carefully matched to
cancel the effects of the transit time of the photons, the propagation times of
the drive signals to the switches, and the propagation times of the signals from
the detectors to the coincidence detectors.
5.5- The resulting detections were quite revealing. An overwhelming
preponderance of them consisted of horizontal/horizontal and vertical/vertical
events, with a much smaller number of horizontal/vertical and
vertical/horizontal events. Since the response time of the optical switches
which changed the polarization of one of the photons was on the order of 10
nanoseconds and the time required for light to travel the length of the
experimental setup was 40 nanoseconds, such a result could only have occurred if
the polarization coupling between the paired photons propagated at a velocity
which was significantly larger than 4 times the velocity of light. The accuracy
of this determination is limited by the speed of the switches and by the length
of the setup. While it is probably quite difficult to improve the switches, the
length of the setup is, in principle, limited by the size of the Earth. It is
not difficult to envision an experimental arrangement which would demonstrate a
propagation velocity for polarization coupling between paired photons greater
than a million times the velocity of light.
5.6- Consider a modification to the experimental setup, as shown in
Figure 5.2. In the experiment represented by Figure 5.1, care was taken to
insure that the path lengths traveled by each of the paired photons and the
length of the signal paths from the optical detectors to the coincidence
detectors were equal. This was done to insure that the effect of any velocity
that the laboratory might have with respect to space on the transit times of the
photons from the source to their respective photon detectors was canceled by the
effect of that same velocity on the propagation times of the signals from the
photon detectors to the coincidence detectors. As a result, the experiment was
unaffected by the velocity of the laboratory with respect to any velocity
reference frame arbitrarily chosen to be at rest. In the proposed modification
of the experiment, the independence of the results on the velocity of the
laboratory through space is eliminated by moving the coincidence detector to the
left side of the setup and substituting adjustable delay lines in the signal
paths between the left side photon detectors and the coincidence detectors. The
adjustable delay lines compensate for the propagation delay of the signals
between the right side photon detectors and the coincidence detectors and are
adjusted to provide the maximum level of horizontal/horizontal and
vertical/vertical detections. The settings of the delay lines which result from
that adjustment provides the output data for the experiment.
5.7- Since this experiment differs from the preceding one only in the
location of the coincidence detectors and does not differ in the treatment of
the paired photons, it will also be capable of demonstrating the hyperlight
velocity of coupling of paired photons at the output of its coincidence
detector. For that coincidence to be observed the propagation delay of the delay
lines must be adjusted to be equal to the propagation delay of the signal in the
cable which couples the photon detectors at the right side to the coincidence
detectors. The average of the settings of the delay lines provides the output
data of the experiment. If one arbitrarily assigns a velocity of +V
to represent the absolute velocity of the laboratory through space in a
direction to the right, it should be possible to determine that velocity from
the average delay, Tav, set into the delay lines. As
observed in a velocity reference frame which is at rest, the velocity of
propagation of the signal through the cable is increased by V and becomes
C+V, and the setting of the delay line must be changed from its
nominal value of Tav=C/L to compensate. The velocity of
the laboratory through space is then given by
V=C-Tav*C2/L.
5.8- Since the value of V is a number which may be broadcast, the
measured velocity of the laboratory may be transmitted to a series of observers
having velocities different from that of the laboratory and different from each
other. If the Aether Relativity Theory correctly represents reality, the same
number will be received by all of the moving observers and will represent the
absolute velocity of the laboratory through space. If the Special Theory of
Relativity correctly represents reality, the number which is broadcast from the
laboratory will equal zero while the number received by each of the other
observers will be equal to the velocity of the laboratory with respect to
himself. All of those observers would receive a different number! (If any reader
accepts such a result as possible, the author would like to meet him. There is a
bridge over New York City's East River that he has been trying to sell for some
time.) The success of the paired photon experiment of Figure 5.1 insures the
impossibility of a result in which the delay line settings would remain
unchanged at Tav=C/L as the Earth rotated on its axis and moved in its orbit.
5.9- The experiment of Figure 5.1 can be modified to eliminate its
shortcomings as a communication system by providing a phase coherent carrier for
the information to be transmitted by the paired photons. Figure 5.3 shows a
means of providing phase coherency of the paired photons by inserting additional
polarizers at the photon source which are oriented parallel to each other and at
an angle of 45 degrees to the horizontal and vertical polarizers already
described. Since the purpose of this experiment is to demonstrate faster than
light communication from right to left, the switch is eliminated from the left
side of the setup and the detectors at the right side of the setup are replaced
by photon absorbers. Data is inputted to the system through the switch at the
right side of the setup. In place of the switch at the left side, a crystal is
provided which divides the incident light into two polarized beams whose axes
are perpendicular. The orientation of the polarizing crystal is chosen such that
one of the beams is vertically polarized and the other beam is horizontally
polarized. Each of these beams is sensed by a photon detector and the output of
those detectors is decoded to provide the received signal.
5.10- Assuming that the addition of the coherency producing polarizers
does not interfere with the polarization coupling of the paired photons observed
in the experiment of Figure 5.1 (yet to be verified experimentally), the outputs
of the decoder at the left side of the setup will contain a signal identical to
the signal inserted into the switch on the right side of the setup. A computer
simulation to determine the level of the signal received at each detector shows
it to be more than adequate to discriminate against noise. As in the arrangement
of Figure 5.1, 50% of the photons generated by the photon source will be
received (assuming no spurious losses). Of these photons, 75% will be directed
to the detector which was selected by the transmitting switch and 25% will be
directed to the other detector. The resulting decoder output would then be
expected to have a peak to peak amplitude (ideal case) equal to 50% of the
photon output of one side of the paired photon source. It would be interesting
to have such an experiment performed.
5.10A- Update to Text as of 02/19/04 A recent E-mail asserted that the assumption that the addition of the 45 degree polarizers would not affect the polarization coupling of the paired photons was incorrect. The E-mail asserted that such coupling is destroyed when the photons pass through polarizers. If this is the case, the experiment of Figure 5.3 would obviously not work. A closer examination however, reveals that all is not lost. Not only are the 45 degree polarizers unnecessary, removing them improves the signal to noise ratio by 40%. (This illustrates a tongue in cheek truth the writer learned as a teenager. A mechanism being repaired quite often works better with some parts left out.)
5.11- The Paired Photon Experiment described in Figure 5.1 clearly
establishes that the Special Theory of Relativity only survived because the
necessary experiments to validate its special case solution, the Aether
Relativity Theory, were beyond the state of the art until several generations of
physicists had been brainwashed into ignoring the fact that, unlike the Aether
Relativity Theory, it contradicted common sense. The idea that quantum numbers,
such as polarization, can propagate at an infinite velocity and exhibit many (if
not all) of the properties of tachyons does not violate the concept that energy
cannot be transmitted faster than velocity of light. The transmission of
information does not necessarily require the transmission of energy. Since the
energy of a photon does not change as a result of a change in its direction of
polarization, there is no prohibition, even in Special Relativity, against
information represented by the direction of polarization of paired photons
propagating at an infinite velocity. Special Relativity has been experimentally
demonstrated to be incomplete. Its special case solution, the Aether Relativity
Theory is the correct interpretation of reality, and, for the remainder of this
text, its subject matter will be referred to as Velocity Relativity to
distinguish it from the relativistic treatment of gravitation which will be
designated as Gravity Relativity. The Emperor does have clothes after
all!
Chapter 6 - The Nature of Reality
6.1- Do The Effects Observed Between Velocity and/or Elevation Reference
Frames Occur Because of a Change in Reality or Because of a Change in the Units
of Measurement By Which That Reality is Observed?:- In the 19th century, it
was universally assumed that there was an underlying reality which existed
independently of the means by which it was measured. The Lorentz
Contraction-Aether Theory of Relativity accepted this viewpoint, but, under the
Special theory of Relativity, the measurement itself became the reality and the
reality beneath the measurement became meaningless. To examine the difference
between these philosophical approaches, let us consider the implications of a
simple thought experiment as shown in Figure 6.1A. In this experiment, there are two rooms each containing identical clocks which may be interchanged without affecting the results. Also in these rooms are electrically operated buzzers activated by a common signal. An experimenter presses a button to sound the buzzers and observers in each room note the time at which the
buzzer sounds. An hour later, the experimenter again sounds the buzzer, and the
observers in each room again note the time. In room A, the observer reports that
one hour has passed between the soundings of the buzzer. In room B, the observer
reports that 50 minutes have elapsed. Since the clocks are identical, the
philosophy associated with Special and General Relativity asserts that the
observations show that time passes more slowly in room B than it does in room A.
There is, of course, a problem with this assertion, the duration of time between
the soundings of the buzzers was the same in both rooms since they were
activated by the same signal and the propagation time for that signal between
the rooms is much smaller than the difference in readings of the clocks.
Repeating the experiment with the clocks interchanged between rooms yields the
same result and shows that a difference between the clocks was not the cause of
the difference in the observed durations.
6.2- The experimental results appear absurd until it is learned that
the clocks are of the old fashioned type driven by synchronous electric motors
from an external A-C power source. What the experiment actually reveals is that
the clock in room A is operated from a 60 Hz. power source, as is conventional
in the USA, and the clock in room B is operated from a 50 Hz. power source, as
is conventional in Europe. The passage of time reported by each clock was
determined by the room in which it was placed as well as by the actual passage
of time. To measure the actual passage of time in each room, it is necessary to
determine the effect of that room on the speed of its clock and to correct each
observation for that effect with respect to an agreed upon universal standard.
Without such a correction, the term GIGO applies to the experiment. (GIGO is an
expression formulated in the early days of the computer. It means garbage in =
garbage out.)
6.3- The preceding rather fatuous description was provided to show the
need for recognizing that, when a quantity is observed using ideal instruments
in reference frames which differ in velocity and/or elevation, it is necessary
to distinguish between two effects. The effect of interest occurs as a result of
a change of the quantity itself. Observation of that effect may be corrupted by
a change in the calibration (size of the units of measurement) of the measuring
instrument(s) which may occur between the reference frames. The predictions of
General Relativity caused measurements to be made which demonstrated that the
rate of passage of time slows as the elevation in a gravitational field is
reduced. To be objective, one must determine whether the rate of passage of time
actually decreases or whether clocks run more slowly (units of measurement for
time are larger) at the lower elevation or whether both effects occur in
combination. Fortunately, a physically realizable thought experiment can provide
the answer.
6.4- Consider next an experimental setup in a vertical shaft drilled
into a mountain, as shown in Figure 6.1B. A pair of
identical atomic clocks are mounted at the top and bottom of the shaft. The
height of the shaft is sufficient, perhaps 10,000 feet, so that the clocks can
accurately measure the gravitationally induced difference in the rate of passage
of time between the top and the bottom of the shaft. At the start of the
experiment, a signal is sent from the bottom of the shaft to the top and the
clocks are synchronized. At the end of the experiment, a second signal is sent
from the bottom to the top of the shaft and the elapsed time is read on both
clocks. Since the duration of the experiment will be affected by any velocity
induced difference in the propagation time of the start and stop signals between
the elevations, the effect of propagation time error is minimized by making the
duration of the experiment equal to four years. This time span insures that the
change in velocity of the shaft through space as a result of the orbital motion
of the Earth and of its rotation is minimized. With this precaution, the
difference in the duration of the experiment between elevations can be reduced
to less than one picosecond. Since four years is 1.25*108 seconds, the duration of the experiment is the same at both elevations to an accuracy of better than one part in 1020. The slowing of time, as measured by the difference
in readings of these clocks, over the elevation difference of 10,000 feet is
about of one part in 3*1013. To an accuracy of better
than 1 part in a million, the difference which will be observed in the duration
of the experiment between the upper and lower elevation results from a
difference in the speed of the clocks and not from a change in the rate of
passage of time. We may conclude therefore that the rate of passage of time is
an absolute which is independent of whether a measurement has been made and
independent of the characteristics of any instruments might have been used to
make such a measurement.
6.5- The preceding paragraph leads to the conclusion that a change of
reference frame (elevation or velocity ) causes a change in the size of the
units of measurement for time (duration of time between the ticks of the clock)
by which the clock gauges the passage of time while the rate of passage of time
itself is unchanged. If such a conclusion applies to time in a gravitational
field, consistency requires that it apply to all other measurements (force,
mass, length, etc.) in which relativistic effects are involved. The relativistic
theories must then actually be a means of keeping track of the consequences of
changes in size of the various units of measurement which occur as a result of a
change in velocity or elevation. They do not involve the size of those
quantities in the absolute sense.
6.6- The Nature of Mass:- Throughout the science of physics, the
concept of mass plays an important role. Subjectively, the meaning of mass was
brought home to the writer quite vividly years ago as he stood on a dock while a
large freighter was being moored. Apparently the captain of the ship and/or the
tugboat crew were not sufficiently skilled, and the ship was pushed toward the
dock at a speed equivalent to the crawl of a sleepy turtle. The ship contacted
the group of pier supports, each composed about a dozen 12 inch diameter wooden
pilings, and kept right on moving. Despite its extremely slow speed, before the
ship came to rest it had pushed the massive pier supports about four feet
sideways and made necessary a significant degree of dock repair. One only need
to observe such an occurrence to appreciate the significance of the ship's
inertial mass.
6.7- In the above experience, the author did not actually observe the
mass of the ship, he observed the effects of the force which resulted when the
pier supports attempted to lessen the ship's velocity. Observation of such a
force is the only manner in which one can measure the inertial mass of any
object or particle. Inertial mass cannot be observed directly. It can only be
observed as the incremental impulse (force-time product) required
to produce an incremental change in velocity (length/time quotient)
and is more properly defined in terms of force, length and time. Similarly,
gravitational mass is observable only in terms of force, length, and another
known gravitational mass in accordance with Newton's Law of Gravitation.
Finally, if one considers the equivalence between mass and energy, Thomson's
E=M*C2, one notes that only two of the three terms in
that equation are independent. Since, unlike mass, both the velocity of light
and energy are directly observable, mass must be a dependent variable without
existence as an entity in its own right.
6.8- The misapplication of the concept of mass has led physicists to
some weird conclusions. For example, the photon and the neutrino are considered
to be massless particles despite the fact that they represent the presence of
energy and have inertial and gravitational properties consistent with the level
of that energy. (In the author's text "Gravity", it is shown that the
gravitational mass represented by the energy of a photon or neutrino is twice
that of the gravitational mass of the same quantity of energy in a the form of a
material particle.) The reason that photons and neutrinos are called "massless"
particles is that they do not possess mass when they are at rest. Since these
particles only exist when they travel at the velocity of light, their
designation as "massless" particles would seem to be rather frivolous. More
damaging, the designation of these particles as massless obscures the fact that
the gravitational mass of the background radiation in our universe exceeds the
gravitational mass of its matter by a wide margin. This faulty definition has
caused astronomers and cosmologists to spend a great deal of effort in searching
for the dark matter needed to account for gravitationally induced behavior
observed throughout the Universe. A rough calculation shows the so called
"massless" particles easily contain enough gravitational mass to account for that
behavior. The inertial mass of the so called "massless" particles also provides sufficient radiation pressure to prevent the Universe from contracting due to gravitational arrtaction.
6.8a- A clarification as of February 2004 - It is repeatedly asserted that photons are massless particles because they have zero rest mass. This assertion is partially true, they do have no rest mass, but they also do not exist at any velocity different from C so the assertion is true but meaningless. The inertial mass of the photon, as determined by the force exerted when it is reflected or absorbed, may be determined by dividing the accepted equation defining the momentum of the photons in terms of its energy. If one divides both sides of that equation by the velocity of light one obtains M=E/C^2, a rearrangement of the well known equation, E=M*C^2. If one applies the Lorentz Transformations for Mass to determine the mass of of a photon at zero velocity to determine its rest mass, one finds that he has divided the mass of the photon at the velocity C by infinity!. Since dividing any actual number by infinity produces a value of zero, the fact that the photon has no rest mass should surprise no one. Special Realtivity requires that conclusion but does not prevent the photon, as it exists from having mass!
6.9- The classical concept of inertial mass is the incremental change
of total energy, (dE), resulting from an incremental change in velocity, (dV).
Because E=M*C2, it follows that
(dM)=(dE)/C2, and, in terms of that definition of mass,
the effect of mass is more properly provided by the derivative of the
conventional Lorentz Transformation for Mass with respect to velocity, the
Lorentz Transformation for Incremental Mass. The curves of Figure 6.2 provide the
relationship between the both the mass and the incremental mass of an object as
a function of its velocity. It will be noted that the Lorentz Transformation for
Incremental Mass is the slope (first derivative) of the curve for the Lorentz
Transformation for Mass. When the Lorentz Transformation for Incremental Mass is
employed in the solution of relativistic problems, mass has the correct
dimensional content and the discrepancy between its use in classical problems
and its use in relativistic problems vanishes. Special Relativity's
artificiality of substituting momentum for mass is no longer required.
6.10- The use of the Lorentz Transformation for Mass instead of the
Lorentz Transformation for Incremental Mass led to the false conclusion that,
since Special Relativity was derived for reference frames having relative
velocity, it could not be applied to accelerated reference frames. That
conclusion is incorrect. Both Special Relativity and the Aether Relativity
Theory provide transformations for both length and time. Since velocity is the
first derivative of length with respect to time and acceleration is the second
derivative of length with respect to time, if Special Relativity and/or Aether
Relativity can deal correctly with the effects of velocity, they must also be
able to deal correctly with the effects of acceleration. Contrary to dogma,
General Relativity is not required for that purpose.
6.11- The Mechanism Behind the Lorentz Transformations:- The Lorentz Transformations provide a description of how matter behaves when its velocity is
changed so that the Principle of Relativity is satisfied and observers moving
with that matter can always consider themselves to be at rest. It is desirable
to describe how these transformations come about in a manner which is consistent
with common sense so that the effect can be readily understood and is not
beclouded by mathematical obfuscation. In order to measure a length, one might
use a yardstick (or meterstick if you prefer) as the unit of measurement. In the
ideal case, the length of this yardstick is composed of a chain of atoms whose
overall length is determined by the number of atoms in the chain and the
distance between them. If the velocity of the yardstick is changed, the spacing
between the atoms in the chain may change, but the number of atoms in the chain
will not. The problem of determining lengths then boils down to determining how
atoms control their spacing. For example, the two atoms in a hydrogen molecule
maintain a separation of slightly over 10-10 meters and
strongly resist any outside forces attempting to change that spacing. Since the
spacing between the atoms represents a distance of 105
times the diameter of the proton in which 99.95% of the mass of the
atom resides, it is obvious that the atoms have some means of measuring their
separation and applying the forces needed to maintain that separation over what,
to the atom, is an enormous distance.
6.12- In the macroscopic world, there are three means by which distances
can be measured by electromagnetic means. They are triangulation, the radar principle, and comparison of the time difference between two signals which propagate at different velocities (e.g.- the difference in time between the observation of a lightning flash the obervation of the sound of the flash). Triangulation, however, requires the pre-existence of a baseline of a known length, and, while it might seem to answer the question of how two hydrogen atoms might measure and maintain their separation, it is not a viable explanation because it requires that there be an independent means of defining the baseline. Triangulation does not resolve the problem, it merely moves it to another location. The radar principle does not suffer from this limitation and would seem to be a reasonable candidate. The recognition, however, that Bell's Inequality shows that quantum effects propagate at an infinite velocity suggests that the comparison of time difference (the sound of thunder and the flash of lightning) is a more probable mechanism (circa 2003). (The writer rejects as foolishness the idea of Parallel Universes.) This mechanism requires the existence of an entity which propagates at a fixed velocity through the apparently empty space between the atoms. Electromagnetic radiation propagating through an Aether fills this role nicely.
6.13- To bring the process into the common sense world, consider an
example in which two boats are station keeping with respect to each other and
with respect to an indefinitely long straight bulkhead along the shore, as
diagramed in Figure 6.3. The only instrumentation which these boats have to allow them to perform their station keeping function operates by sending sound waves through the water. On
each boat, time is measured by a sonic clock whose unit of measurement is the
round trip time of a sonic signal sent vertically from the bottom of the boat to
a plate mounted a short distance below and reflected back to the boat. Each boat
also sends a sonic signal to the bulkhead and measures the time, using its sonic
clock, required to receive the reflection of that signal. It is then steered so
as to maintain that time unchanged. Finally, a sonic signal is sent from the
following boat to a retroreflector on the rear of the leading boat. The
retroreflector returns that signal to the following boat. The rear boat adjusts
its speed to maintain the time for the round trip signal, as measured by the
sonic clock, unchanged.
6.14- The time required for sound to travel though water between two
points is determined by three parameters, one of which is dependent on the
velocity of the points of transmission and reception through the water. First
consider the case of the round trip signal between the following boat to the
leading boat. While the signal is traveling through the water, it propagates at
the velocity of sound in the water, C. When the signal is sent from the
following boat to the leading boat which is a distance L ahead, the receiving
point is running away from the signal at the speed of the boat, V, and the time
required for the outward trip is given by To=L/(C-V).
When the signal is returned, the following boat approaches the signal at the
speed of V, and the time required for the return trip is given by
Tr=L/(C+V). The time for the round trip, T, is the sum
of these times, T=2*L*C/(C2-V2), or
T=2*L/Bv2 where BV = (1-V2/C2)0.5.
6.15- When the signal is sent in a direction at right angles to the
velocity of the boats, as occurs in the case of the signal of the sonic clock
and in the signal reflected from the bulkhead, a different result occurs. While
the signal is en route, the receiving point moves laterally by an amount
determined by the velocity of the boat and the time for the signal to make the
round trip. As a result, the round trip signal has traveled a distance equal to
the vector sum of twice the nominal distance to the target plus the distance
that the boat has traveled during the round trip. For this situation, the
distance the signal has traveled during the round trip has been increased by
C/(C2-V2)0.5, or
1/Bv, in accordance with the Pythagorean Theorem for the
sides of a right triangle. The effect causes the round trip time for the signal
between the boat and the bulkhead to increase by the same ratio and also reduces
the speed of the sonic clock by (C2-V2)0.5/C, or
Bv. With respect to the measurement of the distance
between the boats and the bulkhead, the two effects cancel, and the distance the
boats maintain from the bulkhead is independent of their velocity through the
water. Unlike the situation occurring with the round trip of the signal to the
bulkhead, the increase of the round trip time for the signal traveling between
the following and leading boats is only partially canceled by the slowing of
their sonic clocks. For this situation, the round trip time is increased in
proportion to the square of the slowing of the sonic clock. In order to maintain
correct separation between boats, as measured by signals sent through the water,
it is necessary for the operator of the following boat to move closer to the
leading boat. He must reduce the distance between the boats by a factor of
(1-V2/C2)0.5, or
Bv.
6.16- To confine the analogy further, let us assume that the observers
on the boats can only communicate between the two boats and between each boat
and the bulkhead by means of sonic signals sent through the water. With this
limitation, their only means of measuring the velocity of their boats through
the water would be by timing a round trip signal between the boats using their
sonic clocks. As a result, they would always measure their velocity through the
water as zero regardless of their actual velocity. This is exactly analogous to
what occurs in the processes described both by the Special Theory of Relativity
and by the Aether Relativity Theory. If we allow the boats to communicate by
radio as well as by sonic signals, they would quickly discover that clocks which
were supposedly synchronized by the sonic signals sent through the water were
not actually synchronized. The clock in the lead boat would be be set to an
earlier time than the clock in the following boat. The amount of time that the
leading clock is early would provide the information required to calculate the
velocity of the boats through the water just as the ability to communicate at a
velocity significantly greater than the velocity of light would allow us to
determine our absolute velocity through space by establishing an absolute time
reference. (Obviously, real clocks do not function in the manner of the sonic
clock described above, but they obey the same Lorentz Transformation for Time as
a function of their absolute velocity through space as does the sonic clock as a
function of its velocity through the water. The Lorentz Transformation for Time
will be discussed later.)
6.17- If we extend the station keeping analogy to a long convoy of
boats, we obtain an analogy to a yardstick in which the separation of its atoms
(and therefore its length), and the speed of its clock both are determined by
the velocity though the medium (water or the Aether). The length of that
yardstick obeys the Lorentz Transformations for Length in both axes. As a
result, it is impossible for observers to determine their absolute velocity
through space. Matter adjusts its size and clock speed to conceal that velocity.
The concealment is made possible by the fact that the establishment of
simultaneity between physically separated locations is limited by the finite
velocity of propagation of information imposed by the speed of light. We cannot
observe our absolute velocity through the Aether because Nature uses the
velocity of light to determine the size of the matter which comprise our
instruments.
6.18- The Impossibility of Measuring the Velocity of Light:- The
velocity of light is a sacred and immutable quantity in the scientific
community, no matter where or how or by whom it is measured, it always has the
value of 186,236 miles per second. The quantity is so basic that its measurement
is often part of the training process for PhD candidates. Now for the ultimate
heresy. The velocity of light has never been measured and it never will be
measured! When experiments which purport to measure that velocity are
examined, it is found that they violate one of the basic rules of measurement.
When making a measurement, it is necessary to compensate for any effect that the
quantity being measured has on the scale factors of the instruments which are
used. To the author's knowledge, this step has never been included in the
measurement of the velocity of light.
6.19- Consider an attempt to measure the velocity of light in which a
measurement is made of the time required for a pulse of light to be sent from
the top of one mountain to a retroreflector on the top of an adjacent mountain
and returned to its source. The experiment requires the use of a precise clock
and a precise knowledge of the distance between the signal source and the
retroreflector. Atomic clocks of extreme precision and accuracy are available
and are readily transportable to the mountaintop. Determining the distance
between the light source and the retroreflector is difficult since it involves
precision surveying over a long distance of mountainous terrain. To overcome the
difficulty of the survey, it is decided to measure the distance to the
retroreflector by radar. The resulting experiment produces the correct value for
the velocity of light. It concludes that C=C. Unfortunately, while
such a result is correct, it is hardly useful.
6.20- While this example may appear frivolous, it is not. It is a
valid analog of reality. Quantum physicists have concluded that the force
between material particles is electromagnetic in nature and it is asserted to
result from the exchange of virtual photons. As a result, they are also
asserting that the spacing between these particles is determined by the radar
principle or its equivalent and therefore is in agreement with the predictions of Velocity
Relativity Theory. Any attempt to measure the velocity of light must yield the
meaningless conclusion that the velocity of light is equal to the velocity of
light.
6.21- The making of a measurement requires, in effect, the writing of
an equation in which the quantity to be measured appears only on the left side
of the equal sign and all other quantities appear only on the right side. If the
velocity of light, C, is to be measured, it is necessary that both the time, T,
required for light to travel a distance, L, and the distance, L, be measured in
a manner which is independent of C. The velocity of light may then be found by
solving the equation C=L/T. The difficulty arises from the fact
that both the measurement of time and the measurement of length involve the
velocity of light. The length of the yardstick used to measure the length is
asserted to be determined by the alleged exchange of virtual photons between
atoms. The speed of the clock is determined by the resonant frequency of an
oscillating spring-mass system. One of the factors which determines the
frequency of such a system is the elasticity of the spring which is determined
by the exchange of the alleged virtual photons between its atoms. The other
factor which determines its frequency is the mass of the oscillating system as
determined by the energy represented by its mass divided by the square of the
velocity of light. Obviously, the equation by which one would expect to use in
measuring the velocity of light is not quite applicable.
6.22- While the author has not attempted the derivation, he is drawn
to the conclusion that the correct equation for the measurement of the velocity
of light is a rearrangement of the Fine Structure Constant,
e'*h*C/e2=137, where h is Planck's Constant, e is the
charge of the electron, and e' is the dielectric constant of space. (e' is
required if the equation is to be dimensionally correct. The current practice of
omitting it from the equation of the Fine Structure Constant is erroneous.) With
this rearrangement, the equation for the measurement of the velocity of light
becomes C=137*e2/(e'*h). The reality of Relativity is
that matter adjusts its size to satisfy this equation and any measurement which
attempts to measure the velocity of light actually measures the Fine Structure
Constant. Since this constant is dimensionless, it is the same at all velocities
through space and at all elevations. Unless a physicist has been completely
brainwashed during his education, he will recognize that the observed constancy
of the velocity of light is not mysterious, it is inevitable and is completely
unrelated to the actual velocity of light.
6.23- In Figure 6.4 three velocity reference frames are considered, "x", "a", and "b". It will be noted that, in accordance with the concepts of both the Special Theory
of Relativity and the Aether Theory of Relativity, the relative velocity of "b"
with respect to "x", Vbx, is provided in terms as the sum of the
velocity between "b" and "a", Vba, and the velocity between "a" and
"x" as the sum of Vax and Vba divided by a factor, 1+Vax*Vba/C2. The denominator is
required to compensate for the effect of the finite velocity of light on the
measurement of the velocity differences. It is the effect represented by this
term which prevents the direct addition of relativistic velocities and which
prevents the observed difference of velocity between any two reference frames
from exceeding the velocity of light. The denominator in the equation results
from the limitation that the velocity of light imposes on the velocity of
communication between reference frames. (The denominator becomes unity if the
experimenter communicates at an infinite velocity, possibly through the use of
paired photons.) If the product Vxa*Vab in
the denominator is small compared to the square of the velocity of light, its
effects can be ignored, non-relativistic mechanics are valid, and velocities may
be added directly. This conclusion will become important when we examine the
deficiency of Special Relativity with regard to accelerations.
6.24- Consider t