Chronofile: The Exobiological Era:
Progress in Space Exploration

EXOBIOLOGY:
[]_ In general, the scientific study of biologically relevant energy-events beyond planet Earth's biosphere proper. Often, the search for extra-terrestrial life itself.
[]_ Specifically, the technical study of the natural and/or synthetic existence in form or function of any biophysical (Carbon implicate) set or sets as found in situ in Universe or allocated-coordinated intentionally or otherwise by man to be uniquely distinct and separate from terrestrial archaeo/current 'Home-Base' Space-Ship Mother Earth itself,__ and all that encompasses the natural biosphere of Planet Earth.

Note: Some dates for event entries may be approximate. Dates may refer to spacecraft launch, goal or target attainment or extra-planetary landing.

1900 - 1949

BALLOON FLIGHT - Europe - (1912)

Discovery of cosmic rays. Cosmic ray research began in 1912 when Victor Hess, of the Vienna University, and 2 assistants flew in a balloon to an altitude of about 16,000 ft. They discovered evidence of a very penetrating radiation (cosmic rays) coming from outside our atmosphere. In 1936, Hess was awarded the Nobel prize for this discovery.
Cosmic Rays further elucidated - USA - (September 21, 1932)

Dr. Robert A. Millikan of Caltech, winner of the 1923 Nobel prize in physics, completed a series of tests on the intensity of cosmic rays at various altitudes in a Condor bomber from March Field, Calif.

POLAR MEASUREMENTS OF COSMIC RAYS - USA - (March 9, 1940)
A Beechcraft AD-17 biplane was flown to an altitude of 21,050 ft over the Antarctic to measure cosmic rays for the U.S. Antarctic Expedition.

NRL V-2 ROCKET - USA - (1946)
First observation of the Sun's UV spectrum.

NRL V-2 ROCKET - USA - (1949)
First observation of solar x rays.
Between 1946 and 1951 the Naval Research Laboratory's major V-2 program accomplishments included:
[]__the first direct measurement of atmospheric pressure above 18 miles;
[]__the first photos of Earth from 40-, 70- and 101 miles altitude;
[]__the first photos of the ultraviolet solar spectrum below 285 angstroms;
[]__the first detection of solar Lyman-alpha radiation;
[]__the first detection and measurement of solar X rays; and
[]__the first direct measurement of the profile of ionospheric electron density versus height.

1950 - 1960

VIKING RESEARCH ROCKET - USA - (May 11, 1950)

A U.S. Naval Research Lab (NRL) Viking research rocket was fired from the U.S.S. Norton Sound near Jarvis Island in the Pacific, at the intersection of the geographic and geomagnetic equators, to collect cosmic ray and pressure and temperature data.

[]__ SPUTNIK-1 - USSR - (October 04,1957)
First artificial satellite.

EXPLORER-1 - USA - Orbital Mass: 13.97 kg -(Launched February 1, 1958 at 04:48:00 UTC)
Over the years, NASA has launched a series of "Explorer" spacecraft/satellites carrying out a wide variety of scientific investigations. The first explorations involved the discovery of Earth's radiation belts and cosmic-rays (astrophysicist Dr. James A. Van Allen's research), atmospheric micro-particles, satellite drag and atmospheric density studies, & etc. The 'Explorer Spacecraft-Series' began in the late 1950s; it is not simply the longest running series of spacecraft, it has produced highly-durable (i.e., well-engineered) spacecraft as well. Not all missions were successful.

EXPLORER-3 - USA - (March 26, 1958)
Cosmic rays and micro-meteorite studies.

SPUTNIK-3 - USSR - (May 15, 1958)

The first attempt to launch Sputnik 3 on February 3, 1958 failed, but the second on May 15 succeeded, and it carried a large array of instruments for geophysical research. Its tape recorder failed, however, making it unable to measure the Van Allen radiation belts.

SPUTNIK-4 was launched into orbit two years later on May 15, 1960.

PIONEER-0 - USA Lunar Orbiter - (August 17, 1958)
The first stage of the craft exploded.

PIONEER-1 - USA Lunar Orbiter - (October 11, 1958)
Craft failed to reach escape velocity.

SPUTNIK-2 - USSR - (November 03,1957)
First artificial "Bio-Satellite". The second Sputnik satellite was launched on Nov 3, 1957 and carried a dog, named Laika, into space. Biological data was returned for a week before the animal had to be put to sleep. The mission planners did not provide for the safe return of the spacecraft or its passenger, making Laika the first space casualty.

PIONEER-3 - USA Lunar Flyby - (December 06, 1958)
Failed to reach escape velocity.

LUNA-1 - USSR Lunar Flyby - 361 kg - (January 2, 1959)
Luna 1 was the first lunar flyby and the first space-craft to escape Earth's gravitational field. It discovered the solar wind and is now in a solar orbit.

VANGUARD-2 - USA - (February 17, 1959)
First 'exobiological' image-photo of Earth.

PIONEER-4 - USA Distant Lunar Flyby - 5.9 kg - (March 3, 1959)
Space probe is now in a solar orbit.

LUNA-2 - USSR Lunar Hard Lander - 387 kg - (September 12, 1959)
Luna 2 was the first spacecraft to impact the surface of the moon on September 14, 1959.

LUNA-3 - USSR Lunar Far Side Flyby - 278.5 kg - (October 4, 1959)
Encountered the Moon on October 7, 1959 and returned the first image of the Moon's hidden side. Space probe is now in a decayed earth-moon orbit.

PIONEER-5 - USA Solar Monitor - (March 11, 1960)
Space probe is now in a solar orbit.

TIROS-1 - USA- 278.5 kg - (April 01, 1960)
TIROS-I was the first successful weather satellite, and the first of a series of TIROS satellites. It was designed to test experimental techniques for taking television footage of weather patterns from orbit, and was launched on April 1, 1960 from Cape Canaveral, Florida. Though operational for only 78 days, it was vastly more successful than Vanguard 2 in demonstrating that satellites were useful for surveying atmospheric conditions from space.
Two television cameras were housed in the 270 pound (120 kg) craft, along with two magnetic tape recorders which could be used to store photographs when the satellite was out of communications range. Power was supplied by onboard batteries, charged by 9200 solar cells.

SPUTNIK-4 - USSR - (May 15, 1960)
Sputnik-4 was launched into orbit two years later on May 15, 1960, two years after Sputnik 3.

SPUTNIK-5 - USSR - (August 19, 1960)
Animals and plants orbit the Earth. Sputnik 5 was launched into orbit on August 19, 1960 with the dogs Belka and Strelka (Russian for "Squirrel", or more likely "Whitey" from Russian "belyj", which means "white", and "Little Arrow"), 40 mice, 2 rats and a variety of plants on-board. The spacecraft returned to earth the next day and all animals were recovered safely. All Sputniks were carried to orbit by the R.7 launch vehicle, originally designed to carry ballistic warheads. More Sputnik History Links.

MARS 1960A - USSR Mars Probe - (October 10, 1960)
Failed to reach Earth orbit.

MARS 1960B - USSR Mars Probe - (October 14, 1960)
Failed to reach Earth orbit.

1961 - 1965

VENERA-1 - USSR First Venus Flyby - 643.5 kg - (February 12, 1961)
Venera 1 (61-003A) was launched along with an Earth orbiting launch platform (Tyazheliy Sputnik 5 (61-003C)) with a Molniya launcher February 12 1961, 00:34:36 (Greenwich Mean Time updated with leap seconds) UTC. From a 229 × 282 km orbit, the Venera 1 automatic interplanetary station was launched from the platform towards Venus with the fourth stage Zond rocket. On February 19,... 7 days after launch at a distance of about two million km from Earth, contact with the spacecraft was lost. On May 19 and 20, 1961, Venera 1 passed within 100,000 km of Venus and entered a heliocentric orbit. It currently remains in a solar orbit.

VOSTOK-1 - USSR - (April 12, 1961)
First manned orbital space flight achieved with Russian cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin and a single orbit of Earth.

MERCURY MR-3 ('Mercury-Redstone-3') - USA Manned Mission - 327 kg - ( May 5, 1961)
First U.S. manned sub-orbital flight with astronaut Alan Shepard.
MR-3 Test/Biological mission. Payload: Mercury SC7. Mass: 1,290 kg. Launch Site: Cape Canaveral . Launch Vehicle: Redstone Mercury. Apogee: 187 km.
Alan Shepard became the first American in space, less than a month after Russia's single-orbit mission with Yuri Gagarin. Only manned flight with original Mercury capsule design (tiny round porthole and periscope). Shepard's capsule reached an altitude of 115.696 miles, range of 302 miles, and speed of 5,100 miles per hour. He demonstrated control of a vehicle during weightlessness and high G stresses. Recovery operations were perfect; there was no damage to the spacecraft; and Astronaut Shepard returned in excellent condition.

MERCURY MR-4 - USA Manned Mission - (July 21, 1961)
Second manned MR-4 Test mission. Flight Crew: Virgil Grissom, Spacecraft: Mercury. Payload: Mercury SC11. Mass: 1,286 kg. Nation: USA. Launch Site: Cape Canaveral . Launch Vehicle: Mercury Redstone . Apogee: 190 km.
The Mercury capsule, Liberty Bell 7, manned by Astronaut Virgil I. Grissom, boosted by a Redstone rocket, reached a peak altitude of 190.3 km and a speed of 8,335 km per hour. After a flight of 15 minutes and 37 seconds, the landing was made 487 km downrange from the launch site. The hatch blew while still in water, and the capsule sank; Grissom was saved, though his suit was filling up with water through open oxygen inlet lines.
This was the second and final manned suborbital Mercury Redstone flight, and the first flight with trapezoidal window. Further suborbital flights (each astronaut was to make one as a training exercise) were canceled. An attempt to recover the capsule in very deep water in 1994 not successful. It was finally raised in the summer of 1999.

EXPLORER-12 - USA - (August 16, 1961)
Explorer-12 successfully transmitted data on magnetic fields and solar radiation from an apogee of nearly 54,000 miles and perigee within 170 miles of the Earth. Explorer-12 had a mass-value of 37.6 kg. Later, more complex Explorer craft such as 'Explore-78' or identically the "Imager for Magnetopause-to-Aurora Global Exploration" (Launch Date/Time: 2000-03-25 at 20:34:43 UTC) would have an on-orbit Dry Mass of 536 kg.

AEROBEE ROCKET - USA - (1962)
This craft observed the first x-ray star.

RANGER-3 - USA Lunar Hard Lander - 327 kg - (January 26, 1962)
Lunar probe missed the moon and is now in a solar orbit.

RANGER-4 - USA Lunar Hard Lander - 328 kg - (April 23, 1962)
First US lunar impact of the Moon.

MARINER-2 - USA Venus Flyby - 201 kg - (August 27, 1962 - January 3, 1963)
On December 14, 1962, Mariner 2 arrived at Venus at a distance of 34,800 kilometers and scanned its surface with infrared and microwave radiometers, capturing data that showed Venus's surface to be about 425°C (800°F). Three weeks after the Venus flyby Mariner 2 went off the air on January 3, 1963. It is now in a solar orbit.

MERCURY-ATLAS 'Friendship 7' - USA First manned orbital mission - (February 20, 1962)
On February 20, 1962, astronaut John Glenn piloted the Mercury-Atlas 6 "Friendship 7" spacecraft on the first manned orbital mission. Launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, he completed a successful three-orbit mission around the earth, reaching a maximum altitude (apogee) of approximately 162 statute miles and an orbital velocity of approximately 17,500 miles per hour. Glenn's "Friendship 7" Mercury spacecraft landed approximately 800 miles southeast of KSC in the vicinity of Grand Turk Island. Mission duration from launch to impact was 4 hours, 55 minutes, and 23 seconds.

MARINER-1 & 2 - USA - (August 26, 1962)
Mariner-1, an identical sister vehicle, was lost in a launch failure prior to the launch of Mariner-2. Mariner 2 was the world's first successful interplanetary spacecraft. It became the first spacecraft to flyby another planet when, on December 14, 1962 when it passed within 34,833 kilometers from the surface of Venus.
The Mariner series of spacecraft were interplanetary probes designed to investigate Mars, Venus, and Mercury. The Mariner Program included a number of firsts, including the first planetary flyby, the first planetary orbiter, and the first gravity assist. To date, Mariner 10 is also the only spacecraft ever to perform up-close observations of Mercury. The Mariner series complemented the Pioneer vehicles which flew during the same time period. Of the 10 vehicles in the Mariner series, 7 were successful (the other 3 were lost due to launch vehicle failures). The planned Mariner 11 and 12 vehicles evolved into Voyager-1 and 2. A set of missions planned as follow-ons to the Mariner series, Mariner Mark-2, was canceled in the early '90s due to budgetary constraints.

RANGER-5 - USA Lunar Flyby - 340 kg - (October 18, 1962)
Ranger-5 was to be a lander but became a flyby because of a spacecraft failure. It is now in a solar orbit.

MARS 1962A - USSR Mars Flyby - (October 24, 1962)
Spacecraft failed to leave Earth orbit after the final rocket stage exploded.

MARS-1 - USSR Mars Flyby - 893 kg - (November 1, 1962)
Communications failed en route.

MARS 1962B - USSR Mars Lander - (November 4, 1962)
Failed to leave Earth orbit.

LUNA-4 - USSR Lunar Probe - 1,422 kg - (April 2, 1963)
Lunar 4 was intended to be a lunar lander but missed the Moon. It is now in an Earth Moon orbit.

VOSTOK-5 - USSR manned - 1,422 kg - (June 14, 1963)
Joint flight with Vostok 6, launched two-days later. Crew: Male cosmonaut Bykovsky Valeri Fyodorovich.

VOSTOK-6 - USSR manned - 1,422 kg - (June 16, 1963)
Joint flight with Vostok 5. First woman in space named Tereshkova Valentina Vladimirovna,... and the only Russian woman to go into space until Svetlana Savitskaya 19 years later. On its first orbit, Vostok 6 came within about five km of Vostok 5, the closest distance achieved during the flight, and established radio contact. Flight objectives included: Comparative analysis of the effect of various space-flight factors on the male and female neuro-somatology and bio-medical research. Elaboration and improvement of spaceship systems under conditions of joint flight were studied. Soviet Premier Khrushchev made the final crew selection. Recovered June 19, 1963 8:20 GMT. Landed 53:16 N 80:27 E. The launch of the first woman into space creates a newspaper sensation throughout the world. Vostok-6 made 48 Earth orbits while Vostok-5 made 81. Humanity truly enters the exobiological era with both man and woman in orbit above the Earth. ___ Ecce Homo exobiologicus!

RANGER-6 - USA Lunar Hard Lander - 361.8 kg - (January 30, 1964)
Cameras failed; lunar probe impacted the surface of the Moon.

ZOND-1 - USSR Venus Flyby - 890 kg - (April 2, 1964)
Communication lost en route; now in a solar orbit.

GEMINI-1 - USA - ... - (Launched: April 8, 1964)
Uncrewed Earth Orbital; now in a solar orbit. The Gemini program consisted of a total of 19 launches (1962 - 1966)
, 2 initial uncrewed test missions, 7 target vehicles, and 10 crewed missions, each of which carried two astronauts to Earth orbit. Designed as a bridge between the Mercury and Apollo programs, the Gemini program primarily tested equipment and mission procedures and trained astronauts and ground crews for future Apollo missions. The general objectives of the program included: long duration flights; testing the ability to maneuver a spacecraft and to achieve rendezvous and docking of two vehicles in Earth orbit; training of both flight and ground crews; conducting experiments in space; extra-vehicular operations (standup sessions and spacewalks); active control of reentry to achieve a precise landing; and onboard orbital navigation. The Gemini missions lasted for periods ranging from 5 hours to 14 days.

RANGER-7 - USA Lunar Hard Lander - 362 kg - (July 28, 1964)
Arrived on July 31, 1964, sent the first close-range television images of the lunar surface. The craft then impacted the Moon.

VOSHOD-1 - manned USSR - 5320 kg - ( October 12, 1964)
First space crew of 3 men. First mission with cabin-time without spacesuits. Sixteen orbits completed.

MARINER-3 - USA Mars Flyby - 260 kg - (November 5, 1964)
Mars flyby attempt. Solar panels did not open, preventing flyby. Mariner 3 is now in a solar orbit.

MARINER-4 - USA Mars Flyby - 260 kg - (November 28, 1964 - December 20, 1967)
Mariner 4 arrived at Mars on July 14, 1965 and passed within 9,920 kilometers of the planet's surface. It returned 22 close-up photos showing a cratered surface. The thin atmosphere was confirmed to be composed of carbon dioxide in the range of 5-10 mbar. A small intrinsic magnetic field was detected. Marine-4 is now in a solar orbit.

ZOND-2 - USSR Mars Flyby - (November 30, 1964)
Contact was lost en route.

GEMINI-2 - USA -3133.9 kg- (January 19, 1965)
This was the second uncrewed Gemini test mission, consisting of a sub-orbital ballistic flight and reentry with the primary objectives being to demonstrate the adequacy of the spacecraft reentry module's heat protection during a maximum heating rate return, the structural integrity of the spacecraft, and the performance of spacecraft systems. Secondary objectives included obtaining test results on communications, cryogenics, fuel cell and reactant supply system, and further qualification of the launch vehicle. [See Gemini-1, April 8, 1964.]

RANGER-8 - USA Lunar Hard Lander - 366 kg - (February 17, 1965)
Ranger-8 arrived at the moon on February 20, 1965. It sent back high-resolution pictures until it impacted in Mare Tranquillitatis.

VOSHOD-2 - USSR - 5682 kg - (March 18, 1965)
First 'Space-walk' or EVA ('extra-vehicular-activity'). Cosmonaut: Alexey Leonov; total duration 20m.; outside duration 12m. Tether-Distance about 5 meters. Fault of orientation system, manual orientation before entry ignition. Landing in out-of-the-way snow-covered taiga. Difficulties with evacuation of the crew experienced.

RANGER-9 - USA Lunar Hard Lander - 366 kg - (March 21, 1965)
Lunar probe sent pictures of its impact on the moon.

GEMINI-3 - USA manned mission - (Launched 23 March 1965)
Gemini 3 was the first crewed Earth-orbiting spacecraft of the Gemini series. It was piloted by astronauts Virgil "Gus" Grissom and John Young, with the primary objective of demonstrating the crewed qualifications of the Gemini spacecraft including evaluation of the two-man Gemini design, the worldwide tracking network, the orbit attitude and maneuver system (OAMS), the control of reentry flight path and landing point, spacecraft systems, and spacecraft recovery. Secondary objectives included evaluation of flight crew equipment and effects of low level launch vehicle oscillations (POGO) on the crew, performance of three experiments, and to obtain photographic coverage from orbit.

LUNA-5 - USSR Lunar Soft Lander - 1,474 kg - (May 9, 1965)
The lunar soft-lander failed and impacted the moon.

GEMINI-4 - USA manned mission - (Launched 3 June 1965)
Gemini 4 was the second crewed mission of the Gemini series and carried James McDivitt and Edward White on a 4-day, 62-orbit, 98-hr flight from June 3 to "splashdown" June 7, 1965. The mission included the first American spacewalk. The objective of the mission was to test the performance of the astronauts and capsule and to evaluate work procedures, schedules, and flight planning for an extended length of time in space. Secondary objectives included demonstration of extra-vehicular activity in space, conduct station keeping and rendezvous maneuvers, evaluate spacecraft systems, demonstrate the capability to make significant in-plane and out-of-plane maneuvers and use of the maneuvering system as a backup reentry system, and conduct 11 experiments.

LUNA-6 - USSR Lunar Soft Lander - 1,440 kg - (June 8, 1965)
Missed the moon and is now in a solar orbit.

ZOND-3 - USSR Lunar Flyby - 959 kg - (July 18, 1965)
Returned pictures of the lunar far side. It is now in a solar orbit.

GEMINI-5 - USA manned mission - (Launched August 21, 1965)
Gemini 5, carrying astronauts Gordon Cooper and Charles "Pete" Conrad was the third crewed Earth-orbiting spacecraft of the Gemini series. The flight was designed to last eight days and test rendezvous procedures. The major objectives of this mission were to demonstrate a long-duration crewed flight, evaluate the effects of long periods of weightlessness on the crew, and test rendezvous capabilities and maneuvers using a rendezvous evaluation pod. Secondary objectives included demonstration of all phases of guidance and control systems to support rendezvous and controlled reentry guidance, to evaluate the fuel cell power system and rendezvous radar, to test the capability of either pilot to maneuver the spacecraft in orbit to close proximity with another object, and to conduct 17 experiments. Splashdown: August 29, 1965.

LUNA-7 - USSR Lunar Soft Lander - 1,504 kg - (October 4, 1965)
Luna-7 failed and impacted the moon.

VENERA-2 - USSR Venus Flyby - 962 kg - (November 12, 1965)
Communications failed just before arrival. Now in solar orbit.

VENERA-3 - USSR - ... - (November 16, 1965)
There were 16 Venera spacecraft of varying descriptions: flyby, impact, atmospheric-probes and landers. The mission of this spacecraft was to land on the Venusian surface, so Venera-3 was historical because of the 'other-world' Venus impact achievement. The entry body contained a radio communication system, scientific instruments, electrical power sources, and medallions bearing the coat of arms of the U.S.S.R. The probe crash-landed on Venus on March 1, 1966. However, its communications systems failed before it could return any information about the planet.
The earliest Venera craft were crushed by the atmosphere before essentially colliding with the surface of Venus; Venera 7 became the first spacecraft to soft-land on the planet. It survived 23 minutes, radioing back information on atmospheric pressure and temperature. A number of the later Venera craft survived for up to an hour in the harsh Venusian atmosphere and sent back photographs of the surface and analyses of the air and soil. In 1983 the Venera 15 and Venera 16 orbiters sent back detailed radar maps of large parts of the northern hemisphere of Venus. The resolution was about 2 km.

LUNA-8 - USSR Lunar Soft Lander - 1,550 kg - (December 3, 1965)
Luna-8 failed and impacted the moon.

PIONEER-6 - USA Solar Probe - 63.4 kg - (December 16, 1965 - Present) The Probe is still transmitting from solar orbit.

Gemini-7 -USA manned mission-3663 kg- (Launch: December 4, 1965 at 19:30:03 UTC) Gemini 7 was the fourth crewed Earth-orbiting spacecraft of the Gemini series, having been launched before Gemini 6A. It carried astronauts Frank Borman and Jim Lovell on the 14 day mission. Its mission priorities were (1)
to demonstrate a 2-week flight, (2)
to perform station keeping with the Gemini launch vehicle stage 2, (3)
to evaluate the 'shirt sleeve' environment and the lightweight pressure suit, (4)
to act as a rendezvous target for Gemini 6, and (5)
to demonstrate controlled reentry close to the target landing point. The crew members had three scientific, four technological, four spacecraft, and eight medical experiments to perform. Splashdown: 18 December 1965.

GEMINI-6A - USA manned mission - (Launched December 15, 1965)
Gemini 6A was the fifth crewed Earth-orbiting spacecraft of the Gemini series, having been launched after Gemini 7, with the intent of making rendezvous with Gemini 7 in Earth orbit. The astronauts on the 26 hour mission were Walter Schirra and Thomas Stafford. The mission priorities were to demonstrate on-time launch procedures, closed-loop rendezvous capabilities, and station keeping techniques with Gemini 7. Other objectives were to evaluate the spacecraft reentry guidance capabilities, and conduct spacecraft systems tests and four experiments. This mission was originally designated Gemini 6 and scheduled for launch on 25 October but was canceled when the Agena target vehicle failed to go into orbit an hour earlier [Hence Gemini-7 is listed here before 'Gemini-6A'.]. Splashdown: December 16, 1965.

1966 - 1970

LUNA-9 - USSR Lunar Soft Lander - 1,580 kg - (January 31, 1966)
Luna 9 landed on the lunar surface and returned the first photographs from the lunar surface.

GEMINI-9A - USA manned mission -3750 kg- (Launched March 16, 1966)
Gemini 9A was the seventh crewed Earth-orbiting spacecraft of the Gemini series. It carried astronauts Tom Stafford and Gene Cernan. Primary mission objectives were to demonstrate (1)
rendezvous techniques and docking with a target vehicle to simulate maneuvers to be carried out on future Apollo missions, (2)
an Extra-vehicular Activity (EVA) spacewalk to test the Astronaut Maneuvering Unit (AMU), and (3)
precision landing capability. Scientific objectives included obtaining zodiacal light and air-glow horizon photographs. Two micrometeorite studies were to be carried out, and there were also one medical and two technological experiments. Splashdown: 6 June 1966.

GEMINI-8 - USA manned mission - (Launched March 16, 1966)
Gemini 8 was the sixth crewed Earth-orbiting spacecraft of the Gemini series, carrying astronauts Neil Armstrong and David Scott. The primary mission objectives were to perform rendezvous and four docking tests with the Agena target vehicle and to execute an Extra-vehicular Activity (EVA) experiment. Other objectives included parking the Agena in a 410 km circular orbit, performing a rendezvous with the Agena, conduct systems evaluation, evaluating the auxiliary tape memory unit, and demonstration of controlled reentry. Ten technological, medical, and scientific experiments were carried on board. Splashdown: 16 March 1966.

LUNA-10 - USSR Lunar Orbiter - 1,597 kg - (March 31, 1966)
Luna-10 is currently in a lunar orbit.

SURVEYOR-1 - USA Lunar Soft Lander - 269 kg - (April 30, 1966 to 1967)
Surveyor-1 was the first American soft landing on the lunar surface.
The purpose of the seven Surveyor missions (five of which are successful) was to land safely on the Moon, test the landing techniques planned for the manned Apollo lunar landers, take close-up images of the surface, and make other observations to find locations that will be safe for Apollo landings.

GEMINI-10 - USA manned mission - (Launched July 18, 1966)
Gemini 10 was the eighth crewed Earth-orbiting spacecraft of the Gemini series, carrying astronauts John Young and Michael Collins. Its primary purpose was to conduct rendezvous and docking tests with the Agena target vehicle. The mission plan included a rendezvous with the Gemini 8 Agena target, two extra-vehicular activity (EVA) excursions, and the performance of 15 scientific, technological, and medical experiments. The scientific experiments were related to (1)
zodiacal light, synoptic terrain, and synoptic weather photography, (2)
micrometeorite collections, (3)
UV astronomical camera, (4)
ion wake measurements, and (5)
meteoroid erosion. Splashdown: 21 July 1966.

LUNAR ORBITER 1 - USA Lunar Orbiter - 386 kg - (August 10, 1966)
Lunar Orbiter 1 orbited the moon, photographed the far side, and then impacted on command.

PIONEER -7 - USA Solar Probe - 63 kg - (August 17, 1966 - ?) Solar-orbiting probe was recently turned off.

LUNA-11 - USSR Lunar Orbiter - 1,638 kg - (August 24, 1966)
Luna-11 is currently in a lunar orbit.

GEMINI-11 - USA manned mission -3798.4 kg- (Launched September 12, 1966)
Gemini 11 was the ninth crewed Earth-orbiting spacecraft of the Gemini series, carrying astronauts Charles "Pete" Conrad and Richard Gordon. The 3-day mission was designed to achieve a first orbit rendezvous and docking with the Agena target vehicle, to accomplish two Extra-vehicular Activity (EVA) tests, to perform docking practice, docked configuration maneuvers, tethered operations, parking of the Agena target vehicle and demonstrate an automatic reentry. There were also eight scientific and four technological experiments on board.

The scientific experiments included:

[]_ synergistic effect of zero gravitation and radiation on white blood cells,
[]_ synoptic terrain photography,
[]_ synoptic weather photography,
[]_ nuclear emulsions,
[]_ airglow horizon photography,
[]_ UV astronomical photography,
[]_ Gemini ion wake measurement, and
[]_ dim sky photography.

Splashdown event: September 15, 1966.

SURVEYOR-2 - USA Lunar Soft Lander - 292 kg - (September 20, 1966)
Surveyor-2 failed and impacted the moon.

LUNA-12 - USSR Lunar Orbiter - 1,620 - (October 22, 1966-1967)
Luna-12 is in a lunar orbit.

LUNAR ORBITER-2 - USA Lunar Orbiter - 390 kg - (November 6, 1966)
Orbited the moon, photographed the far side for potential Apollo landing sites, then impacted on command.

GEMINI-12 - USA manned mission -3762.1 kg -(Launched November 11, 1966)
Gemini 12 was the tenth and final flight of the Gemini series, which bridged the Mercury and Apollo programs. This mission, carrying astronauts Jim Lovell and Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin, was scheduled to perform rendezvous and docking withthe Agena target vehicle, to conduct three Extra-vehicular Activity (EVA) operations, to conduct a tethered station keeping exercise, to perform docked maneuvers using the Agena propulsion system to change orbit, and demonstrate an automatic reentry. There were also 14 scientific, medical, and technological experiments on board. Splashdown: 15 November 1966.

LUNA-13 - USSR Lunar Soft Lander - 1,700 kg - (December 21, 1966)
The crft landed on the lunar surface.

LUNAR ORBITER-3 - USA Lunar Orbiter - 385 kg - (February 5, 1967)
Orbited the moon, photographed the far side for potential Apollo 12 landing sites, then impacted on command.

SURVEYOR-3 - USA Lunar Soft Lander - 283 kg - (April 17, 1967)
Surveyor 3 was the second spacecraft in the Surveyor series to achieve a soft landing on the lunar surface. The main purpose of the mission was to determine various characteristics of the lunar terrain in preparation for Apollo lunar landing missions. Equipment on board included a television camera and auxiliary mirrors, a soil mechanics surface sampler, strain gages on the spacecraft landing legs, and numerous engineering sensors. The spacecraft was launched into a selenographic trajectory on April 17, 1967, and landed on the moon at 2.94 deg s latitude, 23.34 deg w longitude in the southeastern part of Oceanus Procellarum on April 20, 1967. Touchdown on the lunar surface occurred three times because the Vernier engines continued to fire during the first two touchdowns causing the spacecraft to lift off the surface. A large volume of new data on the strength, texture, and structure of lunar material was transmitted by the spacecraft, in addition to the lunar photography transmission. The last data were returned on May 4, 1967.

SOYUZ-1 - USSR manned spacecraft - 6,450 kg - (April 23, 1967)
[]__ Soyuz 1 Flight Crew included: Cosmonaut Vladimir Mikhailovich Komarov, Spacecraft: Soyuz 7K-OK. Launch Site: Baikonur . Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511. Duration: 1.12 days. Perigee: 197 km. Apogee: 223 km. Inclination: 50.8 deg. Period: 88.7 min.
Soyuz 1 is billed as a space disaster that put back Soviet lunar program 18 months. Soyuz 1 as active spacecraft was launched first. Soyuz 2, with a 3 man crew would launch the following day, with 2 cosmonauts spacewalking to Soyuz 1.However immediately after orbital insertion Komarov's problems started. One of the solar panels failed to deploy, staying wrapped around the service module. Although only receiving half of the planned solar power, an attempt was made to position-direct the spacecraft. This failed because of interference of the reaction control system exhaust with the ion flow sensors that were one of the Soyuz' main methods of orientation.
1967 Apr 24 - Crash of Soyuz 1. The decision was made to bring Komarov back due to an undeployed solar panel which reduced electrical power and blocked orientation sensors. Re-entry was successful and the drag chute deployed. However due to a flaw during manufacture, the parachute compartment housing was too rough and the main parachute would not deploy. Cosmonaut Vladimir Mikhailovich Komarov was killed at age 40.

LUNAR ORBITER-4 - USA Lunar Orbiter - 390 kg - (May 4, 1967)
Orbited the moon at a polar inclination and impacted on command.

VENERA-4 - USSR Venus (First) Atmospheric Probe - 1,104 kg - (June 12, 1967)
Venera-4 arrived at Venus on October 18, 1967. This was the first probe to be placed directly into the atmosphere and to return atmospheric data. It showed that the atmosphere was 90-95% carbon dioxide. It detected no nitrogen. The surface temperature reading was 500°C and pressure reading was 75 bar. It was crushed by the pressure on Venus before it reached the surface.

MARINER-5 - USA Venus Flyby - 244 kg - (June 14 to November, 1967)
Mariner-5 arrived at Venus on October 19, 1967, one day after Venera 4. It passed within 3,900 kilometers of the planet's surface. It studied the Venusian magnetic field and found that its atmosphere was composed of 85-99% carbon dioxide. It is now in a solar orbit.

SURVEYOR-4 - USA Lunar Soft Lander - 283 kg - (July 14, 1967)
Lander failed and impacted the moon.

EXPLORER-35 - USA Lunar Orbiter - 104 kg - (July 19, 1967 - 1972)
Orbiter acquired field and particle data.

LUNAR ORBITER-5 - USA Lunar Orbiter - 389 kg (August 1, 1967)
Orbited the moon at a polar inclination, took high resolution pictures of many important sites, and impacted on command.

SURVEYOR-5 - USA Lunar Soft Lander - 279 kg - (September 8, 1967)
Landed on the lunar surface.

COSMOS 186/187 - USSR - ... - (October 22/28, 1967)
Automatic Docking exercise.

SURVEYOR-6 - USA Lunar Soft Lander - 280 kg - (November 7, 1967)
Landed on and took off from the lunar surface.

PIONEER-8 - USA Solar Probe - 63 kg - (December 13, 1967 - Present) Solar probe is still transmitting from solar orbit.

SURVEYOR-7 - USA Lunar Soft Lander - 1,036 kg - (January 7, 1968)
Landed on the lunar surface.

LUNA-14 - USSR Lunar Probe - 1,700 kg - (April 7, 1968)
Luna-14 is in a lunar-solar orbit.

OAO-2 - USA Orbiting Astronomical Observatory - 2012 kg - (July 12, 1968)
Also named "Stargazer". OAO-2 was an Ultra-violet EMR range specific astronomical telescope. OAO 2 was one of a series of automated astronomical observatories that was ground controllable in orientation and was placed in a low-earth orbit.
This spacecraft carried two experiment packages, which were located centrally within the spacecraft, each viewing space from opposite ends. One experiment, the Wisconsin experiment package (WEP), consisted of four stellar photometers (1000 to 4250 A), two scanning spectrometers (1000 to 4000 A), and one nebular photometer (2000 to 3300 A). The other package, Celescope, consisted of four independent telescopic Schwarzschild cameras (1200 to 2900 A).
Other OAO missions:
[]_ OAO 1_[failure after 20 orbits without activating the experiments.],
[]_ OAO B_[failed when the payload shroud of the Atlas-SLV3C Centaur-D rocket failed to separate.],
[]_ OAO 3_COPERNICUS OBSERVER.

ZOND-5 - USSR Lunar Flyby - 5,375 kg - (September 14, 1968)
Lunar fly-around and earth return.

PIONEER-9 - USA Solar Probe - 63 kg - (November 8, 1968 - March 3, 1987)
Still in solar orbit. Died on March 3, 1987.

ZOND-6 - USSR Lunar Flyby - 5,375 - (November 10, 1968)
Lunar fly-around and earth return.

APOLLO-8 - USA Lunar Manned Orbiter - 28,883 kg - (December 21-27, 1968)
Crew: Frank Borman, James A. Lovell, Jr., William Anders.
The crew undertook the first manned lunar fly-around and Earth return. The astronauts made 10 orbits of the moon on Christmas Eve.

VENERA-5 - USSR Venus Atmosphere Probe - 1,128 kg - (January 5, 1969)
Venera-5 arrived at Venus on May 16, 1969. Along with Venera 6, atmospheric data was returned indicating an atmosphere composed of 93-97% carbon dioxide, 2-5% nitrogen, and less than 4% oxygen. The probe returned data down to within 26 kilometers of surface and was then lost - crushed by the pressure on Venus.

VENERA-6 - USSR Venus Atmosphere Probe - 1,128 kg - (January 10, 1969)
Venera-6 arrived at Venus on May 17, 1969. Along with Venera 5, atmospheric data was returned indicating an atmosphere composed of 93-97% carbon dioxide, 2-5% nitrogen, and less than 4% oxygen. The probe returned data down to within 11 kilometers of surface and was then lost - crushed by the pressure on Venus.

MARINER-6 - USA Mars Flyby - 412 kg - (February 24, 1969)
Mariner-6 arrived at Mars on February 24, 1969, and passed within 3,437 kilometers of the planet's equatorial region. Mariner-6 and 7 took measurements of the surface and atmospheric temperature, surface molecular composition, and pressure of the atmosphere. In addition, over 200 pictures were taken. Mariner 6 is now in a solar orbit.

MARINER-7 - USA Mars Flyby - 412 kg - (March 27, 1969)
Mariner-7 arrived at Mars on August 5, 1969, and passed within 3,551 kilometers of the planet's south pole region. Mariner-6 and 7 took measurements of the surface and atmospheric temperature, surface molecular composition, and pressure of the atmosphere. In addition, over 200 pictures were taken. Mariner-7 is now in a solar orbit.

APOLLO-10 - USA Lunar Manned Orbiter - 42,530 kg - (May 18-26, 1969)
Crew: Thomas Stafford, Eugene A. Cernan, John W. Young.
Manned lunar fly-around and Earth return. Stafford and Cernan tested the Lunar Module, separating it from the Commandand Service Module and descended to within 50,000 feet of the lunar surface. The astronauts acquired a large number of excellent 70-mm photographs.

LUNA-15 - USSR Lunar Lander - 2,718 kg - (July 13, 1969)
Unsuccessful sample return attempt. Crashed during landing.

APOLLO-11 - USA Lunar Manned Lander - 43,811 kg - (July 16-24, 1969)
Crew: Neil A. Armstrong, Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr., Michael Collins.
Apollo 11 was the first manned lunar landing, which took place on July 20, 1969. The landing site was Mare Tranquillitatis ("Sea of Tranquility") at latitude 0°67' N and longitude 23°49' E. Armstrong and Aldrincollected 21.7 kilograms of soil and rock samples and deployed experiments.

ZOND-7 - USSR Lunar Flyby - 5,979 kg - (August 8, 1969)
Lunar fly-around and Earth return.

APOLLO-12 - USA Lunar Manned Lander - 43,848 kg - (November 14-24, 1969)
Crew: Charles Conrad Jr., Alan L. Bean, Richard F. Gordon, Jr.
Apollo 12 was a manned lunar landing which took place on November 19, 1969. The landing site was Oceanus Procellarum at latitude 3°12' South and longitude 23°23' West. This was the landing site for Surveyor 3. Conrad and Bean retrieved portions of Surveyor 3, including the camera. Samples amounting to 34.4 kilograms were returned from the moon. Astronauts also deployed the Apollo lunar surface experiment package (ALSEP), an automated research station which was also deployed by all subsequent lunar crews.

APOLLO-13 - USA Lunar Flyby - 43,924 kg - (April 11-17, 1970)
Crew: James A. Lovell, Jr., Fred W. Haise, Jr., John L. Swigert, Jr.
The Apollo 13 mission became one of survival for the astronauts on board. During the translunar coast an explosion destroyed both power and propulsion systems of the Command Service Module. The Lunar Module was used as a lifeboat for the astronauts.

VENERA-7 - USSR Venus Lander - 1180 kg - (August 17, 1970)
Venera 7 arrived at Venus on December 15, 1970 and was the first successful landing of a spacecraft on another planet. It used an external cooling device which allowed it to send back 23 minutes of data. The surface temperature was 475°C, and surface pressure was 90 bar.

LUNA-16 - USSR Lunar Lander - 5,600 kg - (September 12, 1970)
Landed on September 20, 1970 at Mare Fecunditatis located at latitude 0°41' South and longitude 56°18' East. 100 grams of lunar samples were returned to the Earth.

ZOND-8 - USSR Lunar Flyby - (October 20, 1970)
Lunar flyby and earth return.

LUNA-17 - USSR Lunar Lander and Rover - 5,600 kg - (November 10, 1970 - 1971)
Made lunar landing with an automated Lunokhod 1 rover.

1971 - 1975

APOLLO-14 - USA Lunar Manned Lander - 44,456 kg - (January 31 to February 8, 1971)
Crew: Alan B. Shepard, Jr., Edgar D. Mitchell, Stuart A. Roosa.
Shepard and Mitchell landed on the moon on February 5, 1971, in the Fra Mauro highlands, located at 3°40' South and longitude 17°28' East. They collected 42.9 kilograms of lunar samples and used a hand-held cart to transport rocks and equipment.

MARINER-8 - USA Mars Flyby - (May 8, 1971)
Craft failed to reach Earth orbit.

KOSMOS-419 - USSR Mars Probe - (May 10, 1971)
Craft failed to leave Earth orbit.

MARS-2 - USSR Mars Orbiter/Soft Lander - 4,650 kg - (May 19, 1971)
The Mars 2 lander was released from the orbiter on November 27, 1971. It crashed-landed because its breaking rockets failed - no data was returned and the first human artifact was created on Mars. The orbiter returned data until 1972.

MARS-3 - USSR Mars Orbiter/Soft Lander - 4,643 kg - (May 28, 1971)
Mars 3 arrived at Mars on December 2, 1971. The lander was released and became the first successful landing on Mars. It failed after relaying 20 seconds of video data to the orbiter. The Mars 3 orbiter returned data until August, 1972. It made measurements of surface temperature and atmospheric composition.

MARINER-9 - USA Mars Orbiter - 974 kg - (May 30, 1971 - 1972)
Mariner 9 arrived at Mars on November 3, 1971 and was placed into orbit on November 24. This was the first US spacecraft to enter an orbit around a planet other than the Moon. At the time of its arrival a huge dust storm was inprogress on the planet. Many of the scientific experiments were delayed until the storm had subsided. The first hi-resolution images of the moons Phobos and Deimos were taken. River and channel like features were discovered. Mariner 9 is still in Martian orbit.

APOLLO-15 - USA Lunar Manned Lander - 46,723 kg - (July 26 to August 7, 1971)
Crew: David R. Scott, James B. Irwin, Alfred M. Worden.
Scott and Irwin landed on the moon on July 30, 1971. The landing site was Hadley-Apennine at latitude 26°6' North and longitude 3°39' East. They collected samples amounting to 76.8 kilograms. A lunar Roving Vehicle was carried on this mission (and all subsequent ones) which allowed the astronauts to travel several kilometers from the landing site. The commander service module was the first to carry orbital sensors and to release a subsatellite into lunar orbit. Worden performed the first deep spacewalk to retrieve film from the service module.

LUNA-18 - USSR Lunar Lander - 5,600 kg - (September 2, 1971 - 1972)
An unsuccessful sample return attempt, crashed during landing.

LUNA-19 - USSR Lunar Orbiter (Ye-8-LS series) - 5,600 kg - (September 28, 1971 - 1972)
Communications with Luna 19 were terminated some time between 3 and 20 October 1972, after a year of operation and more than 4,000 revolutions around the Moon. The orbiter is now in a lunar orbit.

LUNA-20 - USSR Lunar Lander - 5,600 kg - (February 14, 1972)
Landed on the moon and returned samples to the Earth. Landed on February 21, 1972 at Apollonius highlands located at latitude 3°32' North and longitude 56°33' East. 30 grams of lunar samples were returned to the Earth.

PIONEER-10 - USA Jupiter Flyby - 259 kg - (March 3, 1972)
Pioneer-10 flew by Jupiter on December 1, 1973. It passed 132,250 kilometers from Jupiter's cloud tops. It returned over 500 images of Jupiter and its moons. Pioneer-10's greatest achievement was the data collected on Jupiter's magnetic field, trapped charged particles, and solar wind interactions. The orbit boundary of Pluto was crossed on June 13, 1983. This spacecraft is now more than 8 billion miles away, and is now speeding away from our solar system into deep inter-stellar space. A gold plaque with images of humans and information about our location is mounted on the Pioneer Spacecraft just in case anyone might find it somewhere in the Milky-Way Galaxy and be curious about us.

VENERA-8 - USSR Venus Lander - 1,180 kg - (March 27, 1972)
Venera 8 arrived at Venus on July 22, 1972. It measure wind speed variations as it descended through the atmosphere: 100 meters/second above 48 kilometers, 40-47 meters/second at 42-48 kilometers, and 1 meter/second below 10 kilometers. It returned data for 50 minutes after it landed.

APOLLO-16 - USA Manned Lunar Lander - 46,733 kg - (April 16-27, 1972)
Crew: John W. Young, Charles M. Duke, Jr., Thomas K. Mattingly II.
Young and Duke landed on April 21, 1972, at the Descartes crater located at latitude 9°00' N and longitude 15°31' E. They deployed instruments, drove the lunar rover, and collected 94.7 kilograms of samples during a 71-hour surface stay.

COPERNICUS - USA Telescopic satellite - ... - (August 21, 1972)
The Copernicus satellite was launched into a nearly circular 7123 km radius orbit, inclined at 35 degrees, on 21 August 1972. The main experiment was an ultraviolet telescope. However, it also contained a cosmic X-ray experiment provided by University College London/MSSL. The main body of Copernicus measured 3 x 2 meters. While the UV telescope was observing, the X-ray detectors primarily took background measurements. Occasionally, the X-ray detector observed an X-ray source in the field of view of the UV target. It operated till February 1981. The Copernicus Observer is also known as 'OAO-3' and 'OAO-C', in the series of Orbiting Astronomical Observer-telescopes.

APOLLO-17 - USA Manned Lunar Lander - 46,743 kg - (December 7-19, 1972)
Crew: Eugene A. Cernan, Harrison H. Schmitt, and Ronald B. Evans.
Cernan and Schmitt landed on the moon on December 12, 1972. The landing site was Taurus-Littrow at latitude 20°10' North and longitude 30°46' East. They returned 110.5 kg of rock and soil samples. The astronauts covered 30.5 kilometers in the lunar rover during a 75-hour stay.

LUNA-21 - USSR Lunar Lander and Rover - 4,850 kg - (Launch Date: January 08, 1973)
The Soviet craft attained lunar landing with an automated Lunokhod 2 type rover.

PIONEER-11 - USA Jupiter/Saturn Flyby - 259 kg - (April 6, 1973 - November 1995)
Pioneer 11 flew by Jupiter on December 1, 1974 passing 42,900 kilometers from Jupiter's cloud tops. It took better pictures than Pioneer 10, and measured Jupiter's intense charged-particle and magnet field environment. As it flew by Jupiter it was given a gravity assist which swung it onto a course for Saturn. On September 1, 1979, Pioneer 11 flew past the outer edge of Saturn's A ring at a range of 3,500 kilometers. It traveled underneath the ring system and passed 20,930 kilometers from Saturn's cloud tops. It has now left the solar system.

SKYLAB - USA Space Station - (May 26, 1973)
Skylab, which was America's first space station, was manned for 171 days by three crews during 1973 and 1974. The space station included the Apollo Telescope Mount (ATM), which astronauts used to take more than 150,000 images of the Sun. Skylab was abandoned in February 1974 and re-entered the Earth's atmosphere in 1979.

EXPLORER-49 - USA Solar Probe - 328 kg - (June 10, 1973)
Solar physics probe placed in lunar orbit.

MARS-4 - USSR Mars Orbiter - 4,650 kg - (July 21, 1973)
Mars 4 arrived at Mars on February, 1974, but failed to go into orbit due to a malfunction of its breaking engine. It flew past the planet with in 2,200 kilometers of the surface. It returned some images and data.

MARS-5 - USSR Mars Orbiter - 4,650 kg - (July 25, 1973)
Mars-5 entered into orbit around Mars on February 12, 1974. It acquired imaging data for the Mars-6 and 7 missions.

MARS 6 - USSR Mars Orbiter/Soft Lander - 4,650 kg - (August 5, 1973)
On March 12, 1974, Mars 6 entered into orbit and launched its lander. The lander returned atmospheric descent data, but failed on its way down.

IMP-8 - USA - (October 26, 1973)
IMP-8 was launched on a Delta rocket by NASA to measure magnetic fields, plasmas, and energetic charged particles (e.g. cosmic rays) of the Earth's magnetotail and magnetosheath and of the near-Earth solar wind. IMP-8 continues to operate to this day in its near-circular, 12-day orbit. Its orbit is half the distance to the moon. It continues to accumulate a long-time series database useful in understanding long-term solar processes.

MARINER-10 - USA Mercury/Venus Flyby - 526 kg - (November 3, 1973 - March 24, 1975)
Mariner 10 was the first dual planet mission. It flew past Venus on February 5, 1974 for a gravity assist to the planet Mercury. Mariner 10 was the first spacecraft to have an imaging system. It recorded circulation in the Venusian atmosphere and showed the temperature of the cloud tops to be -23°C. Mariner 10 flew past Mercury 3 times on March 29, 1974, September 21, 1974, and March 16, 1975. These three encounters produced over 10,000 pictures with 57% planet coverage. It recorded surface temperatures ranging from 187°C to -183°C on the day and night sides. A weak magnetic field was detected but it failed to detect an atmosphere. Mariner 10 is now in a solar orbit.

LUNA-22 - USSR Lunar Orbiter - 5,600 kg - (May 29, 1974 - 1975)
Successfully entered lunar orbit.

LUNA-23 - USSR Lunar Probe - 5,6000 kg - (October 28, 1974)
Crashed on the lunar surface.

HELIOS-1 - USA & West Germany Solar Probe - 370 kg - (December 10, 1974 - 1975)
Solar probe is in a solar orbit; came within 47 million kilometers of the Sun.

VENERA-9 - USSR Venus Orbiter and Lander - 4,936 kg (June 8, 1975)
Venera-9 arrived at Venus on October 22, 1975, three days before its sister spacecraft Venera 10. Both orbiters photographed the clouds and looked at the upper atmosphere. Differences in cloud layers were discovered at 57-70 kilometers, 52-57 kilometers, and 49-52 kilometers from the surface. The lander arrived on the Venusian surface on November 22, 1975. During a period of 53 minutes, it transmitted the first black and white images of the planets surface. It showed sharp-edged flat rocks and a basaltic terrain. The probe in now in a Venus orbit.

VENERA-10 - USSR Venus Orbiter and Lander - 5,033 kg - (June 14, 1975)
Venera 10 arrived at Venus on October 25, 1975, three days after its sister spacecraft Venera 9. Both orbiters photographed the clouds and looked at the upper atmosphere. Differences in cloud layers were discovered at 57-70 kilometers, 52-57 kilometers, and 49-52 kilometers from the surface. The lander arrived on the Venusian surface on November 25, 1975. During a period of 65 minutes, it transmitted black and white images of the planets surface. The terrain was more eroded than at the Venera 9 landing site.

APOLLO-SOYUZ - USA/USSR Joint (USA and Soviet) Test Project (July 15-24, 1975)
Apollo Crew : Thomas P. Stafford, Vance D. Brand, Donald K. Slayton.
Soyuz Crew: Valeriy Nikolayevich Kubasov, Alexei Arhipovich Leonov.
The Soyuz was launched just over seven hours prior to the launch of the Apollo CSM. Apollo then maneuvered to rendezvous and docking 52 hours after the Soyuz launch. The Apollo and Soyuz crews conducted a variety of experiments over a two-day period. After separation, Apollo remained in space an additional 06 days. Soyuz returned to Earth approximately 43 hours after separation. Test duration: 09 days, 07 hours, 28 minutes.

VIKING-1 - USA Mars Orbiter/Lander - 3,399 kg - (August 20, 1975 - August 7, 1980)
Viking-1 and 2 were designed after the Mariner spacecraft. They consisted of an orbiter and lander. The orbiter weighed 900 kg and the lander 600 kg. Viking-1 went into orbit about Mars on June 19, 1976. The lander touched down on July 20, 1976 on the western slopes of Chryse Planitia. Both landers had experiments to search for Martian micro-organism. The results of these experiments are still being debated. The landers provided detailed color panoramic views of the Martian terrain. They also monitored the Martian weather. The orbiters mapped the planet's surface, acquiring over 52,000 images. Viking 1 orbiter was deactivate on August 7, 1980 when it ran out of altitude-control propellant. Viking 1 lander was accidentally shut down on November 13, 1982, and communication was never regained.

VIKING-2 - USA Mars Orbiter/Lander - 3,399 kg - (September 9, 1975 - July 25, 1978)
Viking-1 and 2 were designed after the Mariner spacecraft. They consisted of an orbiter and lander. The orbiter weighed 900 kg and the lander 600 kg. Viking-2 went into orbit about Mars on July 24, 1976. The lander touched down on August 7, 1976 at Utopia Planitia. Both landers had experiments to search for Martian micro-organism. The results of these experiments are still being debated. The landers provided detailed color panoramic views of the Martian terrain. They also monitored the Martian weather. The orbiters mapped the planet's surface, acquiring over 52,000 images. Viking-2 orbiter was deactivate on July 25, 1978 when it ran out of altitude-control propellant. Viking-2 lander used Viking 1 orbiter as a communications relay, and had to be shut down at the same time as the orbiter on August 7, 1980.

GOES - USA - (October 1975)
GOES (Geostationary Orbiting Environmental Satellite) began to monitor the Sun's surface for outbursts and therefore warn us. This early warning can give us on Earth a few hours to prepare for potentially harmful effects.

1976 - 1980

HELIOS-2 - USA & West Germany Solar Probe - (January 16, 1976)
Solar probe came within 43 million kilometers of the Sun.

LUNA-24 - USSR Lunar Lander - 4,800 kg - (August 9, 1976)
The landing site was Mare Crisium coordinates at latitude 12°45' N and longitude 60°12' E. Samples amounting to 170 grams were returned from the moon.

ENTERPRISE - USA Space Shuttle - (August 12, 1977)
The first test free-flight and terrestrial landing of an American shuttle-craft is accomplished with a landing on a desert lakebed. This follows 11 test-flights of various descriptions before free-flight attainment. The first shuttle-craft were lifted into high-altitude ranges (up to 30,000+ feet) by 747 jet aircraft.

The names of American Shuttle craft include:
[]_ Enterprise,
[]_ Pathfinder,
[]_ Columbia,
[]_ Challenger,
[]_ Discovery,
[]_ Atlantis, and
[]_ Endeavour.

The soviets began shuttle-craft engineering efforts in 1980.
The name of Soviet Shuttle craft include: BURAN and PTICHKA..
The first and only orbital launch of the (unmanned) shuttle Buran 1.01 was at 3:00 UTC on 15 November 1988. It was lifted into orbit by the specially designed Energiya booster rocket. The life support system was not installed and no software was installed on the CRT displays. The shuttle orbited the Earth twice before returning, performing an impressive automated landing on the shuttle runway at Baikonur Cosmodrome.

VOYAGER-2 - USA Jupiter/Saturn/Uranus/Neptune Flyby - 800 kg - (August 20, 1977)
The Voyager-1 and 2 spacecraft, both launched in 1977, embarked on an interstellar mission, with a goal of exploring the solar wind termination shock and the heliopause beyond. Scientists believe Voyager 1 entered the region of the shock in early 2003.
Voyager 2 flew by Jupiter on July 9, 1979, Saturn on August 26, 1981, Uranus on January 24, 1986, and Neptune on August 24, 1989.

VOYAGER-1 - USA Jupiter/Saturn Flyby,__ 800 kg: (September 5, 1977)
Voyager 1 flew by Jupiter on March 5, 1979, and Saturn on November 12,

ISEE-1 & 2 - USA(NASA)-ESA joint project. (October, 1977)
The International Sun-Earth Explorers were a series of probes to study the Earth's magnetosphere and the Sun's effect on it. The ISEE-1 and ISEE-2 spacecraft were both launched in October 1977 into orbits that carried them together into the magnetosphere. The instruments on board included magnetometers and particle detectors. ISEE-3 was launched in August 1978 into an orbit completely outside the magnetosphere to measure the solar wind flow independent of any influence from the Earth. ISEE-3 was later sent to intercept Comet Giacobini-Zinner' and was renamed the 'International Cometary Explorer' (ICE).

IUE - NASA-ESA-UK - ... - (Launched in January of 1978)
The International Ultraviolet Explorer ('IUE') was a joint project with US and European space agencies. It carried a 0.45 meter telescope, with two spectrometers covering the wavelength ranges from 115to 200 nm, both at low and high resolution. From a geo-synchronous orbit the satellite observed targets from solar system objects to bright stars and extra-galactic objects as faint as 21st magnitude. IUE was switched off in 1996 in September after 18 years operation as the longest ,lived astronomical satellite.

PIONEER VENUS-1 - USA Venus Orbiter - 582 kg - (May 20, 1978 - October 8, 1992)
Pioneer Venus-1 (also known as Pioneer 12) arrived at Venus on December 4, 1978. It operated continuously from 1978 until October 8, 1992, when contact was lost with the spacecraft. It was expected to burn up in the Venusian atmosphere 6 days later. The orbiter was the first spacecraft to use radar in mapping the planet's surface. The electron field experiment detected radio bursts presumably caused by lightening. No magnetic field was detected. From 1978 to 1988 the amount of sulfur dioxide in the atmosphere decreased by 10%. The reason for this decrease is unknown. Perhaps a large volcano erupted just before the orbiter arrived and the amount of sulfur dioxide slowly declined.

PIONEER VENUS-2 - USA Venus Atmosphere Probe - 904 kg - (August 8, 1978)
Pioneer Venus-2 (also know as Pioneer 13) carried four atmospheric probes. One large and three smaller ones. They arrived at Venus on December 9, 1978 and plunged into the atmosphere. The four probes descended through the atmosphere by parachute while the spacecraft burned up high in the atmosphere. At a height of 70-90 kilometers the probes encountered a fine haze layer. Between 10-50 kilometers there was little atmospheric convection and below 30 kilometers the atmosphere was clear.

ISEE-3 - USA(NASA)-ESA Joint project (August 12, 1978)
Also called 'ISEE-C'. See entry for ISEE-1/2.

ISSE-3 -a USA Interplanetary Monitor - 479 kg - (August 12, 1978)
ISSE-3 or the 'International Sun-Earth Explorer-3' had an orbit which was the most peculiar ever for a satellite. Aboard the satellite was a highly advanced, miniaturized mass spectrometer that could detect the cosmic ray nuclei of a wide range of elements and many isotopes as well.
The International Sun-Earth Explorer was renamed to INTERNATIONAL COMETARY EXPLORER (ICE). Using the Moon's gravitational pull to redirect its path and to provide more energy, ISEE-3/ICE zoomed around the Moon several times in 1983, passing within a mere 116 km (72 miles) of the lunar surface on December 22, 1983. On September 11, 1985 it passed through the plasma tail of comet Giacobini-Zinner (cometary period of 6.59 years). Termination of ICE/ISEE 3 operations was authorized May 5, 1997.

VENERA 11 - USSR Venus Flyby/Lander - 4,940 kg - (September 9, 1978)
Venera 11 landed on Venus on December 25, 1978, and returned data for 95 minutes. The craft's imaging systems failed.

VENERA 12 - USSR Venus Flyby/Lander - 4,940 kg - (September 14, 1978)
Venera 12 landed on December 21, 1978 and returned data for 110 minutes. Electrical discharges, probably from lightning, were recorded.

SOLAR MAXIMUM MISSION - USA Solar Probe - (February 14, 1980)
The Solar Maximum Mission (SMM) was designed to provide coordinated observations of solar activity, in particular solar flares, during a period of maximum solar activity. The spacecraft suffered an on-orbit failure. A repair mission on STS-41C in 1984, during which shuttle astronauts rendezvoused with SMM, was successful. SMM collected data until Nov. 24, 1989, and re-entered on Dec. 2, 1989.

1981 - 1985

COLUMBIA SPACE SHUTTLE missions.
First Launch - April 12, 1981 All the planning, building, and testing which began in the 1960s culminated on April 12, 1981, when Space Shuttle Columbia was launched on the first Shuttle mission. The perfect two-day mission demonstrated that the team's vision had opened a new era of space exploration. Since then more than 100 missions have been flown.
STS-1 through 5 ran from 1981-1982 and featured the first flight of European Space Agency built SpaceLab.

Some STS missions:
[]_ STS-6: April 4, 1983,...First launch of 'Challenger'.
[]_ STS-9: November 28, 1983,... ESA space-lab.
[]_ STS-41-D: August 30, 1984,... First launch of 'Discovery'.
[]_ STS-51-A: November 8, 1984,...Recovery of satellites 'Westar-6' and 'Palapa-B2'.
[]_ STS-51-J: October 3, 1985,...First launch of 'Atlantis'.
[]_ STS-51-L: January 28, 1986,...Shuttle explodes apparently due to faulty 'O-Ring' leaks.
[]_ STS-26: September 29, 1988,...First launch after the Challenger disaster.
[]_ STS-34: October 18, 1989,...Launch of 'Galileo'.
[]_ STS-31: April 24, 1990,...-USA/ESA- Launch of the Hubble Space Telescope (HST).
[]_ STS-41: October 6, 1990,...Launch of 'Ulysses'; first flight above the solar poles.
[]_ STS-37: April 5, 1991,...Launch of the Compton Gamma-Ray Observatory.
[]_ STS-93: July 1999,... placement in orbit of Chandra X-Ray Observatory.
[]_ STS-114: August 2005,...Discovery returns to Earth safely.
[]_ STS-121: Mission pending engineering studies of potential sheathing-loss problems.

VENERA 13 - USSR Venus Flyby/Lander - 5,000 kg - (October 30, 1981)
Venera 13 landed on Venus on March 1, 1982. It returned black and white, and the first color panoramic views of the Venusian surface. It also conducted soil analysis using an x-ray fluorescence spectrometer. The sample was determined to be leucite basalt , a rare rock type on the Earth.

VENERA 14 - USSR Venus Flyby/Lander - 5,000 kg - (November 4, 1981)
Venera 14 landed on Venus on March 5, 1982. It returned black and white, and color panoramic views of the Venusian surface. It also conducted soil analysis using an x-ray fluorescence spectrometer. The sample was determined to be tholeiitic basalt similar to that found at mid-ocean ridges on the Earth.

VENERA 15 - USSR Venus Orbiter - 5,000 kg - (June 2, 1983)
Venera 15 arrived at Venus on October 10, 1983. Its high-resolution imaging system produced images at 1-2 kilometers in resolution. Venera 15 and 16 produced a map of the northern hemisphere from the pole to 30°N. They found several hot spots, possibly caused from volcanic activity.

VENERA 16 - USSR Venus Orbiter - 5,000 kg - (June 7, 1983)
Venera 16 arrived at Venus on October 14, 1983. Its high-resolution imaging system produced images at 1-2 kilometers in resolution. Venera 15 and 16 produced a map of the northern hemisphere from the pole to 30°N. They found several hot spots, possibly caused from volcanic activity.

SOYUZ-T9 - USSR manned spacecraft - 6850 kg - (June 27, 1983)
Crew included:
Vladimir "Lyakhov" (Afanasiyevich), Commander.
Aleksandr Pavlovich Aleksandrov, Flight engineer.
Soyuz-T9 was the 4th expedition to Salyut-7. Almost immediately after docking at Salyut 7's aft port, the Protons entered Cosmos 1443 and commenced transferring the 3.5 tons of cargo lining its walls to Salyut 7. On July 27 a small object struck a Salyut 7 viewport. It blasted out a 4-mm crater, but did not penetrate the outer of the window's two panes. The Soviets believed it was a member of the Delta Aquarid meteor shower, though it may have been a small piece of orbital debris. Mission accomplished construction in space environment with the mounting of solar-collectors; numerous scientific experiments were also accomplished. More about the Soviet SOYUZ PROGRAM.

DISCOVERY STS-41-D - Space Shuttle-craft - 4,000 kg - (August 30, 1984)
First flown on August 30, 1984, Discovery is the third operational shuttle (excluding test shuttle Enterprise), and the oldest remaining in service. The orbiter is still operational today, and has performed both research and International Space Station (ISS) assembly missions.

VEGA-1 - USSR Venus/Comet Halley Flyby - 4,000 kg - (December 15, 1984)
Vega 1 flew past Venus on June 11, 1985 on its way for a flyby with comet Halley. It dropped off a Venera style lander and a balloon to investigate the Venusian middle cloud layer. The lander's soil experiment failed. The balloon floated in the atmosphere for about 48 hours at an altitude of 54 kilometers. Between Vega 1 and 2, downward gusts of 1 meter/second were encountered and wind velocities of up to 240 kilometers/hour. The Comet Halley flyby took place on March 6, 1986. The Vega 1 probe is now in a solar orbit.

VEGA 2 - USSR Venus/Comet Halley Probe - 4,000 kg - (December 21, 1984)
Vega 2 flew past Venus on June 15, 1985 on its way for a flyby with comet Halley. It dropped off a Venera style lander and a balloon to investigate the Venusian middle cloud layer. The lander's soil experiment sampled anorthosite-troctolite which is found in the lunar highlands but is rare on Earth. The balloon floated in the atmosphere for about 48 hours at an altitude of 54 kilometers. Between Vega 1 and 2, downward gusts of 1 meter/second were encountered and wind velocities of up to 240 kilometers/hour. The Comet Halley flyby took place on March 9, 1986. The Vega 2 probe is now in a solar orbit.

SAKIGAKE - Japan Comet Flyby - 141 kg - (January 7, 1985)
Comet Halley flyby took place on March 1, 1986.

GIOTTO - ESA; Comet Flyby - 512 kg - (July 2, 1985)
Comet Halley flyby took place on March 13, 1986.
The major objectives of The Giotto Mission were to:

[]_ Obtain color photographs of the cometary nucleus;
[]_ Determine the elemental and isotopic composition of volatile components in the cometary coma, particularly parent molecules;
[]_ Characterize the physical and chemical processes that occur in the cometary atmosphere and ionosphere;
[]_ Determine the elemental and isotopic composition of dust particles.
[]_ measure the total gas-production rate and dust flux and size/mass distribution and derive the dust-to-gas ratio,_ and to...
[]_ Investigate the macroscopic systems of plasma flows resulting from the cometary-solar wind interaction.

Other International Halley Watch Missions include: ISEE-3, SAKIGAKE, SUISEI, VEGA-1 and VEGA-2.
After the Halley fly-by, Giotto was put into hibernation, and re-awoken in 1990. Using a close Earth flyby, its trajectory was changed to allow a close encounter with the Comet Grigg-Skjellerup on July 10th, 1992. The flyby distance was actually less than that associated with Halley,__ (around 200 kilometers from the nucleus). The Launch Vehicle was the Ariane.

SUISEI - Japan Comet Flyby - 141 kg - (August 18, 1985 - February 1991)
Comet Halley flyby took place on March 8, 1986.

1986 - 1990

CHALLENGER-10; 51-L (21) - Major USA Launch Failure - (January 28, 1986)
First Shuttle liftoff is scheduled from Pad B. While traveling at Mach 1.92 and at an altitude of 46,000 feet, the Challenger was totally enveloped in an explosive burn. Seven astronauts were killed. The failure of an O-ring seal was determined to be the cause of the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster on January 28, 1986. A contributing factor was cold weather prior to the launch. This was famously demonstrated on public television by Caltech astro-physics professor Richard Feynman, when he placed a small O-ring into ice-cold water, and subsequently showed its loss of pliability before an investigative committee.

In summary,_ the consensus of the Commission and participating investigative agencies was that the loss of the Space Shuttle Challenger was caused by a failure in the joint between the two lower segments of the right Solid Rocket Motor. The specific failure was the destruction of the (O-Ring) seals that are intended to prevent hot gases from leaking through the joint during the propellant burn of the rocket motor. The evidence assembled by the Commission indicated that no other element of the Space Shuttle system or sabotage contributed to this failure.

PROJECT ISS - International Space Station - (December 1, 1987)
On December 1, 1987, NASA announced the names of four U.S. companies who were awarded contracts to help manufacture the US-built parts of the Space Station: Boeing Aerospace, General Electric's Astro-Space Division, McDonnell Douglas, and the Rocketdyne Division of Rockwell. The International Space Station (ISS) is a joint project of 6 space agencies: the U.S.' National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), Russian Federal Space Agency, Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), Canadian Space Agency (CSA/ASC), Brazilian Space Agency (Agência Espacial Brasileira) (AEB) and the European Space Agency (ESA).
As of June 2005, the ISS unit has completed more than 37,573 orbits since its inceptional first 'ZAYA Module' launches (from December 1994 - Jan. 1998).

PHOBOS 1 - USSR Mars Orbiter/Lander - 5,000 kg - (July 7, 1988)
Phobos 1 was sent to investigate the Martian moon Phobos. It was lost en route to Mars through a command error on September 2, 1988.

PHOBOS 2 - USSR Phobos Flyby/Lander - 5,000 kg - (July 12, 1988)
Phobos 2 arrived at Mars and was orbit was established on January 30, 1989. The orbiter moved within 800 kilometers of Phobos and then failed. The lander never made it to Phobos.

MAGELLAN - USA Venus Orbiter - 3,545 kg - (May 4, 1989 - 1994)
Magellan was released into Earth's orbit from a space shuttle and then injected into a transfer orbit to Venus by an upper stage; the craft arrived at Venus on August 10, 1990 and was inserted into a near-polar elliptical orbit with a periapsis altitude of 294 km at 9.5 deg. N. The surface of Venus is obscured by thick clouds of carbon dioxide that makes the surface invisible to typical optical instruments. Magellan craft's radar imaging system was able to produce images at 300 meters/pixel resolution. Magellan mission was able to map the surface of Venus with a synthetic aperture radar (SAR) and to determine the topographic relief of the planet. At the completion of radar mapping 98% of the surface was imaged at resolutions better than 100 m, and many areas were imaged multiple times. Radio contact with Magellan was lost on October 12, 1994.

GALILEO - USA & Europe Jupiter Orbiter/Atmospheric Probe - 2,222 kg - (October 18, 1989)
Galileo was designed to study Jupiter's atmosphere, satellites and surrounding magnetosphere for 2 years. In order to get there, it used gravity assist techniques to pick up speed by flying past Venus on February 10, 1990. It then flew past the Earth & Moon on December 8, 1990 and then again on December 8, 1992. It has made encounters with asteroid 951 Gaspra on October 29, 1991, and asteroid 243 Ida on August 28, 1993.

MUSES-A - Japan Lunar Orbiters - (January 24, 1990)
This consisted of two small orbiters but failed to send back data from their orbit around the Moon. This was the first non USA or USSR probe to reach Moon.

HUBBLE SPACE TELESCOPE - USA & Europe Telescope - (April 25, 1990)
The Hubble Space Telescope has returned high-resolution images of Mars and the other outer planets of the Solar System. In July 1994, it photographed the collision of Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 with Jupiter.

ROSAT - USA, Germany and the UK - (June 1, 1990)
ROSAT,..The ROSAT Mission... the Röntgen Satellite, was an X-ray observatory developed through a cooperative program between Germany, the United States, and the United Kingdom. The satellite was proposed by the Max-Planck-Institut für extraterrestrische Physik (MPE) and designed, built and operated in Germany. It was launched by the United States on June 1, 1990. The mission ended after almost nine years, on February 12, 1999.

ULYSSES - USA & Europe Solar Flyby - 370 kg - (October 6, 1990)
The Ulysses spacecraft is an international project to study the poles of the Sun and interstellar space above and below the poles. It used Jupiter for a gravity assist to swing out of the ecliptic plane and onward to the poles of the Sun. The Jupiter flyby was on February 8, 1992. The first solar polar passage was in June 1994. The spacecraft passed the solar equator in February 1995 and passed over the north pole in June 1995.

1991 - 1995

YOHKOH - Japan/USA/England Solar Probe - (August 31, 1991)
This spacecraft studied high-energy radiation from solar flares.

SAMPEX - USA - (July 1992)
The SAMPEX (Solar Anomalous and Magnetospheric Particle Explorer) mission was launched. It carries instruments in a polar orbit around the Earth, sampling both interplanetary and magnetospheric particles every orbit. These studies contribute to understanding the process of nucleosynthesis. They allow examination of the history and evolution of the galaxy and the solar system, as reflected in their composition, and aid in understanding the acceleration of particles on a variety of scales.

IMAX - USA - (July 1992)
The IMAX (Isotope Matter-Antimatter eXperiment) balloon-borne superconducting magnet spectrometer was launched. It measured galactic cosmic ray abundances of protons, anti-protons, hydrogen, and helium isotopes.

MARS OBSERVER - USA Mars Orbiter - (September 25, 1992)

Communication was lost with Mars Observer on August 21, 1993, just before it was to be inserted into orbit.

CLEMENTINE - USA Lunar Orbiter - (January 25, 1994)
The official name for Clementine is "Deep Space Probe Science Experiment" (DSPSE). It was a Department of Defense program used to test new space technology. Clementine was a new design using lightweight structure and propellant systems. It spent 70 days (between February 6 and May 5, 1994)
in lunar orbit. Its four cameras mapped the surface of the Moon at 125-250 meters/pixel resolution. Clementine also used a laser to gather altimeter data which will make it possible to generate the first lunar topographic map.

SOHO - Europe/USA Solar Studies - (December 12, 1995)
The main scientific purpose of SOHO (Solar and Helispheric Observatory) is to study the Sun's internal structure, by observing velocity oscillations and radiance variations, and to look at the physical processes that form and heat the Sun's corona and that give rise to the solar wind, using imaging and spectroscopic diagnosis of the plasma in the Sun's outer regions coupled with in-situ measurements of the solar wind. SOHO will be put into a "halo orbit" around the L1 Lagrange point -- the point 1.5 million kilometers (932,000 miles) away from us at which the gravitational pull of the Earth balances that of the Sun.
The SOHO craft incorporates the 'Large Angle and Spectrometric Coronagraph (LASCO) instrument'. Sungrazing comets are discovered when they enter LASCO's field of view as they pass close by the Sun. As of August 18, 2005,... one thousand comets have been discovered using the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory spacecraft. The SOHO spacecraft has accounted for approximately one-half of all comet discoveries with computed orbits in the entire history of astronomy.

1996 - 2000

NEAR - USA Asteroid Orbiter - 805 Kg - (February 17, 1996)
The main scientific purpose of NEAR (Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous) is to orbit near Earth asteroid 433 Eros. The spacecraft is scheduled to study the asteroid for one year after entering orbit in February 1999. NEAR imaged Comet Hyakutake in March 1996 and will fly within 1,200 kilometers of asteroid 253 Mathilde on June 27, 1997. This is the first of NASA's Discovery missions.

MARS GLOBAL SURVEYOR - USA Mars Orbiter - (November 7, 1996)
Mars Global Surveyor was inserted into an elliptical capture orbit on 12 September 1997. The spacecraft was initiated due to the loss of the Mars Observer and the basic design is after the Mars Observer. Mars Global Surveyor is designed to orbit Mars over a two year period and collect data on the surface morphology, topography, composition, gravity, atmospheric dynamics, and magnetic field. This data will be used to investigate the surface processes, geology, distribution of material, internal properties, evolution of the magnetic field, and the weather and climate of Mars.

MARS-96 - Russia Orbiter & Lander - (November 16, 1996)
Mars '96 consisted of an orbiter, two landers, and two soil penetrators that were to reach the planet in September 1997. The rocket carrying Mars-96 lifted off successfully, but as it entered orbit the rocket's fourth stage ignited prematurely and sent the probe into a wild tumble. It crashed into the ocean somewhere between the Chilean coast and Easter Island. The spacecraft sank, carrying with it 270 grams of plutonium-238.

MARS PATHFINDER - USA Lander & Surface Rover - (December 4, 1996 - September 27, 1997)
Mars Pathfinder arrived at Mars on July 4, 1997 and impacted the surface at 16:57 UT (12:57 PM EDT) at a velocity of about 18 m/s (40 mph). It bounced about 15 meters (50 feet) into the air, bouncing another 15 times and rolling before coming to rest approximately 2.5 minutes after impact and about 1 km from the initial impact site. The landing site was in the Ares Vallis region is at 19.33 N, 33.55 W and was named the Sagan Memorial Station.
A six-wheel rover, named Sojourner, rolled onto the Martian surface on July 6 at about 05:40 UT. Mars Pathfinder returned 2.6 billion bits of information, including more than 16,000 images from the lander and 550 images from the rover, as well as more than 15 chemical analyses of rocks and extensive data on winds and other weather factors. The last successful data transmission was on September 27, 1997, the 83rd day of the mission since landing on the surface.
This is the second mission in NASA's low-cost Discovery series.

CASSINI-HUYGENS - USA & Europe: --Saturn Orbiter/Titan Probe - (1997)

The aim of the joint ESA/NASA CASSINI-TITAN MISSION will be the exploration of the whole Saturnian system - the planet itself, its atmosphere, rings and magnetosphere, and some of its moons (Titan and the icy satellites). Titan is especially interesting because its atmosphere is supposed to have properties very close to those of the Earth's atmosphere during its pre-biotic evolutionary stages. Such conditions would have also existed on neonate Earth. The Cassini mission will consist of the NASA-provided Saturn Orbiter coupled with ESA's Huygens probe, which will be dropped into Titan's atmosphere. During the three hours of its descent to the surface of Titan, and after touchdown, Huygens will study the characteristics of Titan's atmosphere and surface.
Four NASA spacecraft have been sent to explore Saturn. Pioneer 11 was first to fly past Saturn in 1979. Voyager 1 flew past a year later, followed by its twin, Voyager 2, in 1981.
The Cassini spacecraft is the first to explore the Saturn system of rings and moons from orbit. Cassini entered orbit on Jun. 30, 2004 and immediately began sending back intriguing images and data. The European Space Agency's Huygens Probe is set to dive into Titan's thick atmosphere in January 2005. The sophisticated instruments on both spacecraft are providing scientists with vital data and the best views ever of this mysterious, vast region of our solar system.

LUNAR PROSPECTOR - 295 kg - USA Lunar Orbiter - (January 6, 1998)
Lunar Prospector was launched on January 6, 1998 and arrived at the Moon on January 11, 1998. It is designed for a low polar orbit investigation of the Moon, including the mapping of surface composition and possible ice deposits, the measuring of magnetic and gravity fields, and the study of lunar outgassing events. This data could help scientists plan a potential lunar base and develop theories of the formation of the Moon, Earth and Solar System. Its mission is scheduled to last one to three years.

NOZOMI (Planet B) - Japan Mars Orbiter - (July 3, 1998)
Japan's Institute of Space and Astronautical Science (ISAS) launched this probe to study the Martian environment. This will be the first Japanese spacecraft to reach another planet. The spacecraft will encounter Mars in December of 2003.

DEEP SPACE 1 (DS1)
- USA Asteroid and Comet Flyby - (October 24, 1998)
The Deep Space 1 (DS1) is the first of a series of technology demonstration probes being developed by NASA's New Millennium Program. The spacecraft flew by the Mars-crossing near-Earth asteroid 9969 Braille in July, 1999 and will fly by comet Borrelly in September 2001.

MARS CLIMATE ORBITER - USA Mars Orbiter - (December 11, 1998)
The Mars Climate Orbiter, also known as the Mars Surveyor '98 Orbiter, was a companion to the Mars Polar Lander. Its the mission was to study the Martian weather, climate, and water and carbon dioxide budget. It was destroyed when a navigation error caused it to miss its target altitude at Mars by 80 to 90 kilometers, instead of entering the martian atmosphere at an altitude of 57 kilometers during the orbit insertion maneuver.

MARS POLAR LANDER - USA Mars Lander - (January 3, 1999)
The Mars Polar Lander, also known as the Mars Surveyor '98 Lander, was a companion to the Mars Climate Orbiter. It was to touch down on the southern polar layered terrain, between 73 S and 76 S, less than 1000 km from the south pole, near the edge of the carbon dioxide ice cap in Mars' late southern spring. The last telemetry from the spacecraft was sent just prior to atmospheric entry on 3 December 1999. No further signals have been received from the lander, the cause of this loss of communication is not known.

DEEP SPACE 2 (DS2) - USA Mars Penetrators - (January 3, 1999)
The Deep Space 2 (DS2) project is a New Millennium mission consisting of two probes which were to penetrate the surface of Mars near the south polar layered terrain and send back data on the sub-surface properties. On 3 December 1999 the probes were nearing Mars on a trajectory to enter the atmosphere and bring them to their intended landing site, but contact was never made with either probe and the mission was presumed lost.

STARDUST - USA Comet Sample Return - (February 7, 1999)
NASA's Stardust spacecraft successfully shot into a clear blue sky atop a Delta II rocket from Florida's Cape Canaveral Air Station at 4:04:15 p.m. EST (02.07.1999)__ to become the first U.S. mission destined for a comet, and the first-ever spacecraft sent to bring a sample of a comet sample back to Earth. The primary goal of Stardust is to collect dust and carbon-based samples during its closest encounter with Comet Wild 2 - pronounced "Vilt 2" after the name of its Swiss discoverer - is a rendezvous scheduled to take place in January 2004, after nearly four years of space travel. The return of the ~125 pound capsule is scheduled to arrive back on Earth in January 2006.

CHANDRA X-RAY OBSERVATORY - USA - (July 23, 1999)
NASA's Chandra X-ray Observatory, which was launched and deployed by Space Shuttle Columbia on July 23, 1999, is the most sophisticated X-ray observatory built to date. Chandra is designed to observe X-rays from high-energy regions of the universe, such as the remnants of exploded stars.

IMAGE - USA Space Weather Satellite - (March 25, 2000)
IMAGE is the first weather satellite for space storms. It is designed to study the global response of the Earth's magnetosphere to changes in the solar wind.

2001 - 2004

2001 MARS ODYSSEY - USA Mars Orbiter - (April 7, 2001)
The 2001 Mars Odyssey orbiter will nominally orbit Mars for three years, with the objective of conducting a detailed mineralogical analysis of the planet's surface from orbit and measuring the radiation environment. The mission has as its primary science goals to gather data to help determine whether the environment on Mars was ever conducive to life, to characterize the climate and geology of Mars, and to study potential radiation hazards to possible future astronaut missions.

GENESIS - USA Solar Wind Sample Return - (July 30, 2001)
The primary objective of the Genesis mission is to collect samples of solar wind particles and return them to Earth for detailed analysis.

CONTOUR - USA Fly-by of three Comet Nuclei - (July 4, 2002)
The Comet Nucleus Tour (CONTOUR) will fly-by the comets Encke, Schwassmann-Wachmann-3, d'Arrest and possibly a fourth comet. Scientific objectives include imaging the nuclei at resolutions of 4 m, performing spectral mapping of the nuclei at resolutions of 100-200 m, and obtaining detailed compositional data on gas and dust in the near-nucleus environment.

JAPAN ASTEROID SAMPLE RETURN - (Nov/Dec 2002)
The primary scientific objective of the Muses-C mission is to collect a surface sample of material from an asteroid and return the sample to Earth for analysis.

SMART 1 - ESA Lunar Orbiter - (December 21, 2002)
The SMART-1 (Small Missions for Advanced Research in Technology 1)
is a lunar orbiter designed to test spacecraft technologies for future missions such as a solar-powered ion drive. It is to return data on the geology, morphology, topography, mineralogy, geochemistry, and exospheric environment of the Moon.

NEAP - USA Asteroid Nereus Rendezvous - 2002

ESA COMET OBITER AND LANDER - (January 12, 2003)
Rosetta will investigate comet Wirtanen. The spacecraft will orbit the comet and drop two probes to land on it. During the spacecraft's eight-year voyage to Wirtanen, it will conduct flybys of the asteroids 3840 Mimistrobell and 2530 Shipka.

Columbia STS-107 - USA Shuttle mission (January 16, 2003)
Unsuccessful return of the shuttle occurred on February 1, 2003. The vehicle broke up while traveling at 12,500 mph (Mach 18.3)
at an altitude of 207,135ft over East Central Texas resulting in the loss of both vehicle and crew. Shuttle missions were put on hold until July, 2005.

HAYABUSA - Japanese Asteroid Lander - (May 9, 2003)
After the successful launch of the spacecraft on May 9, 2003 from the Japanese Kagoshima Launch site, the mission name was changed from MUSES-C to Hayabusa. Hayabusa, which is Japanese for "falcon," will act much like its namesake, descending to the asteroid's surface, capturing its prey and returning it to Earth. While the scientific knowledge of near-Earth asteroids will be significantly advanced by the Hayabusa mission, the primary goals are to test four advanced technology systems: the electric propulsion (ion drive) engines; an autonomous navigation system; the sample collection system; and the sample capsule that re-enters the Earth's atmosphere.
Graphics and more about __ Hayabusa.

MARS EXPLORATION ROVERS - USA Two Mars Rovers - (May 22 to June 4, 2003)

ESA Mars Orbiter and Lander - (June 1, 2003)

LUNAR-A - Japan Lunar Orbiter and Penetrators - (September 1, 2003)
Lunar-A will deliver three penetrators to the Moon's surface to study seismometry and thermal properties. The purpose is to learn more about the Moon's interior structure.

THE SPITZER SPACE TELESCOPE - USA - (August 25, 2003)
The Spitzer Space Telescope (formerly SIRTF, the Space Infrared Telescope Facility ) was launched into space by a Delta rocket from Cape Canaveral, Florida on 25 August 2003. During its 2.5-year mission, Spitzer will obtain images and spectra by detecting the infrared energy, or heat, radiated by objects in space between wavelengths of 3 and 180 microns (1 micron is one-millionth of a meter). Most of this infrared radiation is blocked by the Earth's atmosphere and cannot be observed from the ground.

SELENE - Japan Lunar Orbiter and Lander - (2003)

DEEP IMPACT - USA Comet Rendezvous and Impact - (January 1, 2004)

MESSENGER - USA mercury Orbiter - (March 23, 2004)

PLUTO-KUIPER EXPRESS - USA Pluto Flyby - (2004)
Work on this mission has been stopped for budgetary reasons. NASA is now seeking proposals for a new Pluto / Kuiper Belt Mission. It was originally scheduled for launch around 2001 and to arrive at Pluto around 2013. The mission will consist of a pair of small, fast, relatively cheap spacecraft weighing less than 100 kilograms each. The spacecraft will pass within 15,000 kilometers of Pluto and Charon. They might include Russian Zond probes designed to study the Plutonian atmosphere. See entry for the New Horizons mission in January 2006.

2005 - 2xyz

DEEP IMPACT - USA Comet Rendezvous and Impact - (July 3, 2005)
The probe rammed the heart of the Tempel 1 comet exactly as planned at 0552 GMT, 133 million kilometers (83 million miles) from Earth.
A picture sent to Earth by a fly-by probe showed a bright flash of light as the projectile collided with the massive comet, which is traveling through the solar system at approximately 37,100 kilometers (23,000 miles) per hour and is equal in size to half of Manhattan Island.
As a reminder of scientific progress with 'space navigation technology' perhaps,... recall that the USA's Ranger-3 mission with the Lunar Hard Lander-probe launched on January 26, 1962 missed the moon entirely and went into a solar orbit, becoming one of the first man-made cometoids in history! Eventually,... Ranger 4's Lunar Hard Lander on April 23, 1962 succeeded in hitting the lunar target.

ASTRO-E2 OBSERVATORY - Japan (JAXA) -X-Ray Telescope- (July 10, 2005)
The 6.5-meter-(21-foot-)long satellite complex was lifted into Earth orbit by a three-stage M-V-6 rocket shot into space from the Uchinoura Space Center, 985 kilometers (620 miles) southwest of Tokyo Sunday, July 10, 2005. Within days after liftoff, Astro-EII, drawing power from solar panels, is expected to test the operation of its five X-ray telescopes and its data streaming capabilities. Starting next month, it will relay data five times daily to a global network of antenna mission control uses. The X-ray telescopes in Earth's orbit will examine black holes and distant galaxies. The satellite nickname is "Suzaku", a phoenix-like deity in mythology associated with the southern part of the sky( also a 'Red Bird').
It was the first liftoff for Japan's space program since the February launch of the H-2A rocket. The H-2A's liftoff in February was the space agency's first success after an accident in November 2003, when a rocket carrying two spy satellites malfunctioned and was destroyed in mid-flight.

SPACE SHUTTLE DISCOVERY - USA -Earth-to-Space Transport Vehicle- (July 26, 2005)
The Discovery shuttle craft and seven astronauts blasted into orbit on 07.26.05. Shuttle flights had been suspended for over two years following the tragic loss of the Space Shuttle Columbia crew on February 1, 2003. A two and a half-year shutdown has been devoted to making the shuttle less risky and NASA more safety-conscious.
The Discovery shuttle returned safely to Earth on 08.09.05 marking an historical first,...a woman was at the helm guiding a shuttle landing. Discovery Commander Eileen Collins gently settled the 100-ton ship onto a concrete runway in a predawn landing at Edwards Air Force Base in California's Mojave Desert. The mission may be the shuttle's last for some time as recent safety upgrades failed to prevent Discovery from shedding insulating foam at launch, the same problem that doomed Columbia.

MARS RECONNAISSANCE ORBITER (MRO) - USA -Mars Exploration Satellite- (Aug. 12, 2005)
On August 12, 2005,...the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter or NASA's MRO space-craft was carried into space on an Atlas V rocket and will require a nearly seven-month journey to Mars. The spacecraft is carrying a hefty science payload to Mars, with six instruments designed to track Martian weather, resolve objects on the surface the size of a kitchen table and measure the planet's composition and atmospheric structure with more detail than ever before. The orbital spacecraft is expected to be the vanguard for two landers NASA plans to launch toward Mars in the next five years, and will identify potential landing targets.
The orbiter's primary mission ends about five-and-a-half years after launch, on December 31, 2010.
The Phoenix lander is currently scheduled to launch in 2007 and touchdown in the planet's polar region. A large rover, the Mars Science Laboratory, is expected to launch in 2009. For details on all MRO mission stages, see the Mission Timeline.

SHENZHOU 6 -China - manned mission- (October 12, 2005)
Two years after making its first manned spaceflight, SHENZHOU 6 was the second human spaceflight of the People's Republic of China, launched on 12 October 2005 on a Long March rocket from the Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center. The launch was broadcasted to the whole nation on live television.
The Shenzhou spacecraft carried a crew of two for five days in low Earth orbit. The crewmen were able to change out of their new lighter space suits, conduct scientific experiments, and enter the orbital module for the first time, giving them access to toilet facilities. It landed in the banner of Siziwang in Inner Mongolia, the same as the previous manned and unmanned Shenzhou flights.
China has had a rocketry program since the 1950s and launched its first satellite in 1970. The manned space program began in 1992.
The Chinese government plans to land an unmanned probe on the moon by 2010 and send up an orbiting laboratory.

TITAN ROCKET -USA - payload booster- (October 19, 2005)
On October 19th, a rocket blasted off from Vandengberg Air Force Base - the last Titan rocket. Carrying a payload for the US National Reconnaissance Office, the successful Titan IV B launch brings to a close the Titan program whose first launch was in 1959. Originally designed as an intercontinental ballistic missile, the Titan rocket ultimately evolved into a heavy lift workhorse, launching defense, commercial, and scientific payloads to Earth orbit and beyond. In fact, many historic space explorations began with Titan launches, including manned Gemini missions, the Viking missions to Mars, the Voyager tours of the outer solar system, and the Cassini spacecraft now orbiting Saturn. Cassini's probe Huygens accomplished the most distant landing on another world, while Voyager 1 is now humanity's most distant spacecraft.

HAYABUSA - Japanese Asteroid Lander - (November 23, 2005)
Launched on May 9, 2003 from the Japanese Kagoshima Launch site, the asteroid lander HAYABUSA reaches asteroid Itokawa on November 23, 2005.
Before landing, Hayabusa dropped a small object as a touchdown target from 130 feet above the asteroid and then descended to within 56 feet of the surface, at which point ground control lost contact with the probe for about three hours. But after analyzing data later sent by the probe, the agency confirmed that it landed on the asteroid within about 100 feet of the landing target. Distance from Earth : 288,243,130 km (179,105,977 miles).

STARDUST - USA Comet Sample Return - (January 15, 2006)
Launched on February 7, 1999 NASA's Stardust spacecraft successfully parachutes to Earth January 15, 2006. The capsule carrying cometary and interstellar particles successfully touched down at 2:10 a.m. Pacific time in the desert salt flats of the U.S. Air Force Utah Test and Training Range. The capsule was transferred to a special aseptic 'white-room' laboratory at NASA-Houston for careful analysis of the collected interstellar material. Stardust is the first U.S. space mission dedicated solely to the exploration of a comet, and the first robotic mission designed to return extraterrestrial material from outside the orbit of the Moon. The return of the capsule marks a 2.88-billion-mile journey through the solar system. As of 1/23/06, the mission has been judged a great success with over a million particles to analyze, some as large as the width of a human hair and a few larger. Analysis of the cometary dust is expected to answer certain questions about the origin of the solar system.

ST5 Mission - USA three micro-satellites - (March 22, 2006)
The ST5 micro-sates were successfully launched on March 22, 2006 aboard an Orbital Sciences Pegasus Rocket from Vandenberg Air Force Base, California. The official launch time was 9:03:45 a.m. EST. NASA's three micro-sats were launched to test and validate new technologies for future science missions. ST5's objective was to demonstrate and flight qualify several innovative technologies and concepts for application to future space missions.
The ST5 Project is a part of NASA's New Millennium Program, which was created to identify, develop, build, and test innovative technologies and concepts for use in future missions. Its missions are guided by future needs of NASA's Earth and Space Science program.

New Horizons - USA Pluto-Charon flyby - (January 19, 2006)
After launch aboard a Lockheed-Martin Atlas V rocket, the New Horizons spacecraft set out on a journey to the edge of the solar system. Liftoff occurred at 2:00:00 p.m. EST from Launch Complex 41 at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station in Florida. The small piano-sized spacecraft will encounter Pluto on July 2015 after a long 9-year journey. Along its way, New Horizons will pass by Jupiter in 2007 and continue its journey to the Kuiper belt after investigating Pluto and its moon Charon. As the first spacecraft to visit Pluto and its moon Charon, New Horizons looks to unlock one of the solar system's last, great planetary secrets. The seven science instruments on the piano-sized probe will shed light on the bodies' surface properties, geology, interior makeup and atmospheres.

ASTRO-F infrared observatory - Japan(JAXA)-ESA - (February 21, 2006)
Previously known as the InfraRed Imaging Surveyor (IRIS), the ASTRO-F observatory is a space-based infrared telescope designed to conduct a comprehensive survey of the sky from a synchronous polar orbit. The mission is a joint effort of JAXA and researchers from Korea and the European Space Agency (ESA), JAXA officials said.

Thirtieth Anniversary for Viking SpaceCraft.
June, 2006__ Thirty years after the first successful landing on Mars by NASA's Viking spacecraft, the ambitious mission continues to evoke pride and enthusiasm for future space exploration.
Viking 1 was launched Aug. 20, 1975, and arrived at Mars on June 19, 1976. On July 20, 1976, the Viking 1 lander separated from the orbiter and touched down at Chryse Planitia. Viking 2 was launched Sept. 9, 1975, and entered Mars orbit Aug. 7, 1976. The Viking 2 lander touched down at Utopia Planitia on Sept. 3, 1976.

SPACE SHUTTLE DISCOVERY - USA -Earth-to-Space Transport Vehicle- (July 4, 2006)

On July 4, 2006 Space Shuttle Discovery and the STS-121 crew is launched successfully into orbit with the goal of eventually docking with the International Space Station (ISS) .
The mission, will deliver 5,000 pounds of food and equipment to the International Space Station . Three space walks are also scheduled. After 13 days in orbit, the Shuttle will return to Earth, leaving German ESA astronaut Thomas Reiter behind on the ISS as a new Expedition 13 crew member.

THE PHOENIX MARS MISSION- USA Mars exploratory mission - (Launched in August 2007 from a Boeing Delta II rocket.)
After a 680 million-km (423 million-mile) journey from Earth,...
a signal confirming the NASA's PHOENIX lander had finally reached the surface of Mars was received at 2353 GMT on 25 May, 2008.
The spacecraft landed in the northern polar region of Mars to begin three months of examining a site chosen for its likelihood of having frozen water within reach of the lander's robotic arm.
The Phoenix Mars Mission is the first in NASA's Scout Program. Phoenix is designed to study the history of water and habitability potential in the Martian arctic's ice-rich soil. The mission is 'about digging, not roving' one of the scinetist reported to the media.
The University of Arizona is the first public university to lead a mission to Mars. Martian Scout modules are designed to be highly innovative and relatively low-cost complements to major missions being planned as part of the agency's Mars Exploration Program.

The Phoenix project is also historical because of an image taken of the spacecraft during its descent phase. This image was captured by another mars orbiing craft,... the HiRISE camera onboard Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter. This is the first image ever taken of a spacecraft descending to the surface of another planet. Taken from 750 kilometers above Mars, the picture shows Phoenix suspended beneath its unfurling, 10 meter-wide parachute, against the much darker Martian surface.

NOTE:
Visit the __EXO-PLANET WebSite...
By the Spring of 2008, planet detectives have now found at least 293 planets orbiting nearby stars. A little more than a decade ago, that number was zero.

To Be Continued.

Mission News Reports:

Aqua♦ AURA♦ Cassini♦ Chandra♦ Dawn♦ Envisat♦ FUSE♦ Galileo♦ GALEX♦
Genesis♦ GOES♦ GRACE♦ HESSI♦ Hubble♦ Integral♦ ISS♦